<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?><?xml-stylesheet href="http://www.blogger.com/styles/atom.css" type="text/css"?><feed xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom' xmlns:openSearch='http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/' xmlns:georss='http://www.georss.org/georss' xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247</id><updated>2011-12-21T00:49:53.382-08:00</updated><title type='text'>Storie Bagonghe</title><subtitle type='html'>...</subtitle><link rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#feed' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default?max-results=100'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/'/><link rel='hub' href='http://pubsubhubbub.appspot.com/'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><generator version='7.00' uri='http://www.blogger.com'>Blogger</generator><openSearch:totalResults>29</openSearch:totalResults><openSearch:startIndex>1</openSearch:startIndex><openSearch:itemsPerPage>100</openSearch:itemsPerPage><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-114321251839239133</id><published>2006-03-24T07:01:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2006-03-24T07:01:58.406-08:00</updated><title type='text'>Stickam</title><content type='html'>&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;embed src="http://www.stickam.com/flashVarChatPlayer/171922976-0" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="160" height="400" &gt;&lt;/embed&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr align=center &gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.stickam.com" target="_blank" &gt;&lt;font size="-1"&gt;Get Stickam for Free.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-114321251839239133?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/114321251839239133/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=114321251839239133' title='10 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/114321251839239133'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/114321251839239133'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2006/03/stickam.html' title='Stickam'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>10</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-113507245887793959</id><published>2005-12-20T01:54:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2005-12-20T01:54:18.890-08:00</updated><title type='text'>Destinazione, prodotto, incoming</title><content type='html'>Proseguono le iscrizioni per prendere parte a Itit 2005, la V conferenza su&lt;br /&gt;innovazione e tecnologie dell’informazione per il turismo, che si terrà a&lt;br /&gt;Venezia il 2 dicembre prossimo.&lt;br /&gt;“Notevole l’interesse degli operatori pubblici e privati, a conferma&lt;br /&gt;dell’attualità del tema, che coinvolge non solo le destinazioni turistiche e&lt;br /&gt;le imprese ivi localizzate, ma anche gli intermediari ed altri attori che si&lt;br /&gt;occupano di distribuire il prodotto turistico”, comunica una nota degli&lt;br /&gt;organizzatori.&lt;br /&gt;La relazione di apertura sarà tenuta da Dimitrios Buhalis, dell’Università&lt;br /&gt;del Surrey che discuterà le sfide tecnologiche e gestionali che le&lt;br /&gt;destinazioni e gli operatori incoming dovranno affrontare nel prossimo&lt;br /&gt;futuro. Esempi di come vengono utilizzate le tecnologie a livello locale&lt;br /&gt;verranno forniti nella prima sessione. Alto Adige Marketing presenterà&lt;br /&gt;“Dolomiti e montagna”, portale turistico integrato nato per la promozione e&lt;br /&gt;la commercializzazione del territorio delle Dolomiti come un’unica area.&lt;br /&gt;Nella seconda sessione, saranno gli operatori della distribuzione a parlare,&lt;br /&gt;in primis Expedia.it, mentre nell’ultima parte del convegno saranno&lt;br /&gt;analizzati gli strumenti: il portale europeo del turismo, le tecnologie Dms&lt;br /&gt;(destination management system) più efficaci presentate da Tiscover. Infine,&lt;br /&gt;verrà illustrato il portale telematico interregionale di promozione&lt;br /&gt;turistica, a cura di Datasie.&lt;br /&gt;Sul numero di Guida Viaggi settimanale del 28 novembre anticipiamo i temi&lt;br /&gt;della conferenza. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src="http://www.itit2005.itc.it:8080/image/logoITIT2005m.jpg"/&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;http://www.itit2005.itc.it:8080/&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;ITIT2005, la V Conferenza Italiana su Innovazione e Tecnologie dell’Informazione per il Turismo offre un’opportunità unica per comprendere le sfide che le destinazioni turistiche e gli operatori incoming devono affrontare nel mercato turistico digitale e condividere idee, metodologie ed esperienze con altri operatori ed esperti del settore.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tre sono i principali temi che verranno affrontati nel corso delle sessioni previste:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Destinazione, prodotto, incoming: quando la destinazione diventa prodotto turistico? E’ l’incoming a fare la destinazione o viceversa? Come viene digitalizzato il prodotto turistico?&lt;br /&gt;Soggetti e processi dell’incoming: chi è oggi l’”operatore incoming” sia nel mercato tradizionale che in quello online? Quali modelli di business e che competenze e supporti tecnologici vengono sviluppati dai vari attori per ottimizzare i processi di produzione e distribuzione?&lt;br /&gt;La destinazione turistica oggi: come le tecnologie possono supportare la creazione di un network locale di operatori che gestiscono in proprio l’offerta e la promuovono sfruttando i vantaggi della multicanalità distributiva?&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-113507245887793959?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/113507245887793959/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=113507245887793959' title='4 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/113507245887793959'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/113507245887793959'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/12/destinazione-prodotto-incoming.html' title='Destinazione, prodotto, incoming'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>4</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112898291742811315</id><published>2005-10-10T15:21:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-10-10T15:21:58.380-07:00</updated><title type='text'>More Fool Me</title><content type='html'>&lt;br /&gt;Here am I&lt;br /&gt;Who while away the mornings&lt;br /&gt;Since you've gone&lt;br /&gt;Too long have I lay alone&lt;br /&gt;Not knowing which way to turn.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;And there you are&lt;br /&gt;Quite sure that you were right&lt;br /&gt;Knowing full well&lt;br /&gt;That I'd be the first one&lt;br /&gt;To go down.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;And you'd be the one who was laughing&lt;br /&gt;Except when things weren't going your way&lt;br /&gt;And then the lady would say that she'd had enough&lt;br /&gt;Wandering around on her own.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The day you left&lt;br /&gt;Well I think you knew you'd not be back&lt;br /&gt;Well at least it would seem that way&lt;br /&gt;Because you never said goodbye.&lt;br /&gt;But when it comes round to you and me&lt;br /&gt;I'm sure it will work out alright.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;And you'd be the one who was laughing&lt;br /&gt;And giving me something I don't need&lt;br /&gt;And you know, I'd always hold you and keep you warm&lt;br /&gt;Oh! more fool me.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ah, but when it comes&lt;br /&gt;Round to you and me&lt;br /&gt;I ask myself&lt;br /&gt;Do I really believe&lt;br /&gt;In your love.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Yes, I'm sure it will work out alright.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;genesis&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112898291742811315?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112898291742811315/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112898291742811315' title='4 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112898291742811315'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112898291742811315'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/10/more-fool-me.html' title='More Fool Me'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>4</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112794367187877957</id><published>2005-09-28T14:41:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-09-28T14:41:11.950-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Vodcast &amp; Autocasting</title><content type='html'>Autocasting is an automated form of podcasting that allows bloggers and blog readers to generate audio versions of text blogs from RSS feeds. Autocasting software uses XML parsers, TTS (text-to-speech) engines, and audio conversion utilities to convert text blogs into audio files that can be placed on a blog for download, synchronized to a portable audio device, or played on a desktop computer.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Vodcast is an emerging term used for the online delivery of video on demand content via RSS enclosures. The format is used by video weblogs (also known as vlogs, vodding, vlogcasting, or vidcasting). The term is an evolution specialized for video, coming from the generally audio-based "podcast."&lt;br /&gt;The video enclosed in a vodcast can be stored on a web server in any file-based container and codec, or streamed from a streaming server. Podcasting clients can usually be set up to open suitable software to play the videos, although iTunes can play vodcasts internally if they are in a suitable format. Both formats have their advantages: file-based media can be sychnronised with portable media players, whilst streaming allows seeking without downloading the full file and better digital rights management.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112794367187877957?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112794367187877957/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112794367187877957' title='5 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112794367187877957'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112794367187877957'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/09/vodcast-autocasting.html' title='Vodcast &amp; Autocasting'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>5</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112437529190106992</id><published>2005-08-18T07:28:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-08-18T07:28:11.900-07:00</updated><title type='text'>TOURISM BUSINESS AND CULTURE PARK </title><content type='html'>TOURISM BUSINESS AND CULTURE PARK &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;INNOVATION PARK &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;About us&lt;br /&gt;While “Science &amp; Technology Parks” (STPs) were born in the States some 50 years ago (previously inside large companies, suddenly as autonomous centers) &lt;br /&gt;in order to support the development of industrial companies, &lt;br /&gt;Torism Business &amp; Culture Park was born as a nonprofit organism in Florence some 3 years ago, in a club of Florentine friends, with the aims  of supporting the development &lt;br /&gt;of local companies operating in cultural tourism. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Actually there are roughly 200 Science &amp; Technology Parks in 53 Countries in the world.&lt;br /&gt;Our Project is a Virtual Park over internet that support the new protocols for Tourism and Culture&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Tourism as Social Network" our "motto".&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We promote the open source operating system,&lt;br /&gt;for our associates (hotels, b&amp;b, travel agents, travel companies)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;LINUX as the 'platform of choice' instead of 'proprietary' solutions &lt;br /&gt;&amp; all the web applications right for your company.&lt;br /&gt;We offer also full asssistance for Mac users.&lt;br /&gt;We teach how to spare time and money  tips &amp; tricks and everything else related to effectively promote your business.&lt;br /&gt;Self relation marketing &amp; Social networks &lt;br /&gt;(RSS - F.O.A.F - Podcasting -Broadcasting)&lt;br /&gt;Voip - phone over internet  software, hardware&lt;br /&gt;We offer solutions across our forum to share thinkings and &lt;br /&gt;bringing people together! &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;You can find accomodations like bed and breakfast, &lt;br /&gt;pension, little hotel.&lt;br /&gt;Surf inside Tourism Culture Park.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Projects&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tourism &amp; Leisure&lt;br /&gt;Enjoy the fashination of one of the most beautiful and pleasant environment in the world.&lt;br /&gt;Reservations &lt;br /&gt;Hospitality solutions&lt;br /&gt;Events&lt;br /&gt;Fun&lt;br /&gt;Sport&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Culture &amp; Arts&lt;br /&gt;Florence proposes its culture and arts skills as catalyzers for a global knowlwdge and understanding amongst people in the world.&lt;br /&gt;Events&lt;br /&gt;Education and Training &lt;br /&gt;Art Shops Promotion &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Mediterranean Food&lt;br /&gt;Worldwide and historical precious experiences in food culture as health care and taste enjoy to promote and support communication tecniques and practises. &lt;br /&gt;Reservations&lt;br /&gt;Food Education&lt;br /&gt;Stores&lt;br /&gt;Events&lt;br /&gt;Education and Training&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Fashion &amp; Style&lt;br /&gt;First in time and first in class Florentine fashion and style as “arbiter elegantiarum” &lt;br /&gt;Parades&lt;br /&gt;Events&lt;br /&gt;Shopping&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Multinational Education&lt;br /&gt;Science, Tecnology, Architecture, and Business in a multinational and &lt;br /&gt;global business environment&lt;br /&gt;Advanced Study and Reasearch&lt;br /&gt;Vocational Training&lt;br /&gt;Technology Transfer&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Global Business Center&lt;br /&gt;The “ideal” market where to communicate and reach the whole world.&lt;br /&gt;Business Intelligence&lt;br /&gt;Global Trade Network&lt;br /&gt;Business Events&lt;br /&gt;M&amp;A&lt;br /&gt;Partnerships&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tourism Business and Investments Worldwide &lt;br /&gt;Customized Acquisition of Real Estate &lt;br /&gt;Customized Financial Investement in Real Estate&lt;br /&gt;Customized Investment in Business M&amp;A&lt;br /&gt;Customized Start-ups worldwide&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Tourism as Social Network"&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;http://www.tourismculturepark.org/              &lt;br /&gt;HOME PAGE  &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;http://www.tauatauablog.org/forums/           FORUMS&lt;br /&gt;forums - blogs&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;http://www.tourismculturepark.org/culture-park/       TOPICS &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;E-Learning&lt;br /&gt;http://www.tauatauablog.org/school-business/&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;http://www.tourismculturepark.org/bm/index.php    BROADCASTING&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;http://www.cultureparkflorence.com/&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112437529190106992?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112437529190106992/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112437529190106992' title='7 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112437529190106992'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112437529190106992'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/08/tourism-business-and-culture-park.html' title='TOURISM BUSINESS AND CULTURE PARK '/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>7</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112437488013435858</id><published>2005-08-18T07:21:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-08-18T07:21:20.133-07:00</updated><title type='text'>TOURISM BUSINESS &amp; CULTURE PARK</title><content type='html'>TOURISM BUSINESS &amp; CULTURE PARK&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; INNOVATION PARK &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Gli “Science &amp; Tecnology Parks” (Parchi Tecnologici) sono nati negli Stati Uniti circa cinquanta anni fa (dapprima all’interno di grandi aziende, poi come centri autonomi) per cercare di supportare lo sviluppo delle aziende nel settore industriale. &lt;br /&gt;Attualmente i grandi parchi tecnologici sono circa 200 in 53 Paesi nel mondo.&lt;br /&gt;Il nostro intento è quello di crearne uno virtuale dedicato al turismo e alla cultura.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Promuoviamo tutto ciò che è Open Source&lt;br /&gt;per aziende di turismo e cultura.&lt;br /&gt;Insegniamo agli operatori come risparmiare tempo e incrementare visibilità.&lt;br /&gt;Linux e Macintosh come alternativa a Windows&lt;br /&gt;Self relation markeking &amp; Social networks&lt;br /&gt;VOIP - telefonia "over" internet&lt;br /&gt;Podcasting, Broadcasting, RSS, "Permission Marketing"&lt;br /&gt;"High tech - high touch"&lt;br /&gt;"Tourism as Social Network"&lt;br /&gt;oltre che offrire mera visibilità alle sue aziende&lt;br /&gt;insegna strategie d' avanguardia per risparmiare tempo e denaro.&lt;br /&gt;Offre consulenza informatica avanzata (hadware - software - network -web)&lt;br /&gt;a 360°.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;TOURISM BUSINESS AND CULTURE PARK&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Tourism as Social Network"&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;http://www.tourismculturepark.org/              &lt;br /&gt;HOME PAGE PROGETTO  Strutture ricettive&lt;br /&gt;Tourism as Social Network&lt;br /&gt;oltre che offrire mera visibilità alle strutture ricettive&lt;br /&gt;offriamo consulenza informatica avanzata&lt;br /&gt;creazione di siti web HTML - XML - RDF - PHP &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;http://www.tauatauablog.org/forums/           FORUMS&lt;br /&gt;forums - blogs&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112437488013435858?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112437488013435858/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112437488013435858' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112437488013435858'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112437488013435858'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/08/tourism-business-culture-park_18.html' title='TOURISM BUSINESS &amp; CULTURE PARK'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112342255320352516</id><published>2005-08-07T06:49:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-08-07T06:49:13.226-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Sant’Antonio allu desertu-I Gufi</title><content type='html'>Sant’Antonio allu desertu&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Buona sera cari amici&lt;br /&gt;tutte quante le cristiane&lt;br /&gt;questa sera vaggiu a dice&lt;br /&gt;della festa de dimane&lt;br /&gt;che dimane è S. Antonio&lt;br /&gt;tu nemice ce tu dimonio&lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio S.Antonio&lt;br /&gt;tu nemice dellu simonie.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Li arenti e S. Antonio&lt;br /&gt;una moglie gli vogliono dare&lt;br /&gt;ma lui non si vuol sposare&lt;br /&gt;e nel diserte si fa mandare&lt;br /&gt;pe navè la siccatura&lt;br /&gt;de sta fa una criatura&lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio S.Antonio&lt;br /&gt;tu nemice dellu dimonie.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio allu diserte&lt;br /&gt;s'appicciava 'na sicarette&lt;br /&gt;Satanassu pe' dispiette&lt;br /&gt;glie freghette l'allumette&lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio nun s'impiccie&lt;br /&gt;cun lu prospere se l'appiccie&lt;br /&gt;S. Antonio S. Antonio&lt;br /&gt;tu nemice dellu dimonie.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio allu diserte&lt;br /&gt;se faceva la permanente&lt;br /&gt;Satanasse pe' dispiette&lt;br /&gt;glie freghette le currente&lt;br /&gt;S. Antonio lu prende per colle&lt;br /&gt;e lu mette cul culo a molle&lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio S.Antonio&lt;br /&gt;tu nemice ce tu dimonie.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio allu diserte&lt;br /&gt;se cuciva li pantaluni&lt;br /&gt;Satanassu pe' dispiette&lt;br /&gt;glie freghette li buttune&lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio se ne freghe&lt;br /&gt;cun fu spaghe se li leghe&lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio S.Antonio&lt;br /&gt;tu nemice dellu demonie.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio allu diserte&lt;br /&gt;se lavava l'insalata&lt;br /&gt;Satanasse pe' disipiette&lt;br /&gt;glie tirette na sassata&lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio lo riprese pel collo&lt;br /&gt;e lo rimise col culo a mollo&lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio S.Antonio&lt;br /&gt;lu nemice dellu dimonie.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio allu diserte&lt;br /&gt;se magnava le spaghette&lt;br /&gt;Satanasse pe' dispiette&lt;br /&gt;glie freghette le furchette&lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio nun se lagna&lt;br /&gt;cun le mani se le magna&lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio S.Antonio&lt;br /&gt;tu nemice dellu dimonie.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;S. Antonio allu diserte&lt;br /&gt;se diceva tu uraziune&lt;br /&gt;Satanasse pe' dispiette&lt;br /&gt;gli fa il verso dellu trumbune&lt;br /&gt;S. Antonio cui furbiciune&lt;br /&gt;zacchete e zacchete lo fa cappone&lt;br /&gt;S. Antonio S. Antonio&lt;br /&gt;tu nemice dellu dimonie.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Buona sera care amice&lt;br /&gt;tu signore ve benedice&lt;br /&gt;e fa crescere u patrimonio&lt;br /&gt;cun le grazie e S.Antonio&lt;br /&gt;ca dimane è S.Antonio&lt;br /&gt; lu nemice dellu dimonie&lt;br /&gt;S.Antonio S.Antonio&lt;br /&gt;tu nemice dellu dimonie.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112342255320352516?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112342255320352516/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112342255320352516' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112342255320352516'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112342255320352516'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/08/santantonio-allu-desertu-i-gufi.html' title='Sant’Antonio allu desertu-I Gufi'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112323450376112478</id><published>2005-08-05T02:35:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-08-05T02:35:04.543-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Tourism as social network BETA 0,9</title><content type='html'>Tourism as social network BETA 0,9&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We promote the open source operating system,&lt;br /&gt;LINUX as the 'platform of choice' instead of 'proprietary' solutions&lt;br /&gt;&amp; all the web open-source content managers. CMS&lt;br /&gt;We use Skype to connect each others.&lt;br /&gt;We offer solutions across our forum to share thinkings.&lt;br /&gt;We practice social networks&lt;br /&gt;RSS - F.O.A.F - Podcasting - Broadcasting&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;You can find accomodations like bed and breakfast,&lt;br /&gt;pension, little hotel.&lt;br /&gt;Surf inside Tourism Culture Park.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;http://www.tourismculturepark.org/&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112323450376112478?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112323450376112478/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112323450376112478' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112323450376112478'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112323450376112478'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/08/tourism-as-social-network-beta-09.html' title='Tourism as social network BETA 0,9'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112293831810761927</id><published>2005-08-01T16:18:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-08-01T16:18:38.126-07:00</updated><title type='text'>An Effervescing Elephant </title><content type='html'>An Effervescing Elephant &lt;br /&gt;with tiny eyes and great big trunk &lt;br /&gt;once whispered to the tiny ear &lt;br /&gt;the ear of one inferior &lt;br /&gt;that by next June he'd die, oh yeah! &lt;br /&gt;because the tiger would roam. &lt;br /&gt;The little one said: "Oh my goodness I must stay at home! &lt;br /&gt;and every time I hear a growl &lt;br /&gt;I'll know the tiger's on the prowl &lt;br /&gt;and I'll be really safe, you know &lt;br /&gt;the elephant he told me so." &lt;br /&gt;Everyone was nervy, oh yeah! &lt;br /&gt;and the message was spread &lt;br /&gt;to zebra, mongoose, and the dirty hippopotamus &lt;br /&gt;who wallowed in the mud and chewed &lt;br /&gt;his spicy hippo-plankton food &lt;br /&gt;and tended to ignore the word &lt;br /&gt;preferring to survey a herd &lt;br /&gt;of stupid water bison, oh yeah! &lt;br /&gt;And all the jungle took fright, &lt;br /&gt;and ran around for all the day and the night &lt;br /&gt;but all in vain, because, you see, &lt;br /&gt;the tiger came and said: "Who me?! &lt;br /&gt;You know, I wouldn't hurt not one of you. &lt;br /&gt;I'd much prefer something to chew &lt;br /&gt;and you're all to scant." oh yeah! &lt;br /&gt;He ate the Elephant &lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112293831810761927?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112293831810761927/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112293831810761927' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112293831810761927'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112293831810761927'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/08/effervescing-elephant.html' title='An Effervescing Elephant '/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112272430712203641</id><published>2005-07-30T04:51:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-07-30T04:51:47.146-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Gmail account for paolo facetti</title><content type='html'>&lt;img src= "http://services.nexodyne.com/email/icon/3U1BXUyhg0Vk0I0%3D/dv5Q6Y4%3D/R01haWw%3D/0/image.png"&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112272430712203641?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112272430712203641/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112272430712203641' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112272430712203641'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112272430712203641'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/07/gmail-account-for-paolo-facetti.html' title='Gmail account for paolo facetti'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112245832453046958</id><published>2005-07-27T02:58:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-07-27T02:58:44.530-07:00</updated><title type='text'>The Loebner Prize--"The First Turing Test"</title><content type='html'>The Loebner Prize is the first formal instantiation of a Turing Test. The test is named after Alan Turing the brilliant British mathematician. Among his many accomplishments was basic research in computing science. In 1950, in the article Computing Machinery and Intelligence which appeared in the philosophical journal Mind, Alan Turing asked the question "Can a Machine Think?"He answered in the affirmative, but a central question was: "If a computer could think, how could we tell?" Turing's suggestion was, that if the responses from the computer were indistinguishable from that of a human,the computer could be said to be thinking.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112245832453046958?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112245832453046958/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112245832453046958' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112245832453046958'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112245832453046958'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/07/loebner-prize-first-turing-test.html' title='The Loebner Prize--&quot;The First Turing Test&quot;'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112245826245707567</id><published>2005-07-27T02:57:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-07-27T02:57:42.473-07:00</updated><title type='text'>COMPUTING MACHINERY AND INTELLIGENCE</title><content type='html'>Turing, A.M. (1950). Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind, 59, 433-460.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;COMPUTING MACHINERY AND INTELLIGENCE&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;By A. M. Turing&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1. The Imitation Game&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I propose to consider the question, "Can machines think?" This should begin with definitions of the meaning of the terms "machine" and "think." The definitions might be framed so as to reflect so far as possible the normal use of the words, but this attitude is dangerous, If the meaning of the words "machine" and "think" are to be found by examining how they are commonly used it is difficult to escape the conclusion that the meaning and the answer to the question, "Can machines think?" is to be sought in a statistical survey such as a Gallup poll. But this is absurd. Instead of attempting such a definition I shall replace the question by another, which is closely related to it and is expressed in relatively unambiguous words.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The new form of the problem can be described in terms of a game which we call the 'imitation game." It is played with three people, a man (A), a woman (B), and an interrogator (C) who may be of either sex. The interrogator stays in a room apart front the other two. The object of the game for the interrogator is to determine which of the other two is the man and which is the woman. He knows them by labels X and Y, and at the end of the game he says either "X is A and Y is B" or "X is B and Y is A." The interrogator is allowed to put questions to A and B thus:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C: Will X please tell me the length of his or her hair?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Now suppose X is actually A, then A must answer. It is A's object in the game to try and cause C to make the wrong identification. His answer might therefore be:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"My hair is shingled, and the longest strands are about nine inches long."&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In order that tones of voice may not help the interrogator the answers should be written, or better still, typewritten. The ideal arrangement is to have a teleprinter communicating between the two rooms. Alternatively the question and answers can be repeated by an intermediary. The object of the game for the third player (B) is to help the interrogator. The best strategy for her is probably to give truthful answers. She can add such things as "I am the woman, don't listen to him!" to her answers, but it will avail nothing as the man can make similar remarks. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We now ask the question, "What will happen when a machine takes the part of A in this game?" Will the interrogator decide wrongly as often when the game is played like this as he does when the game is played between a man and a woman? These questions replace our original, "Can machines think?" &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2. Critique of the New Problem&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;As well as asking, "What is the answer to this new form of the question," one may ask, "Is this new question a worthy one to investigate?" This latter question we investigate without further ado, thereby cutting short an infinite regress.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The new problem has the advantage of drawing a fairly sharp line between the physical and the intellectual capacities of a man. No engineer or chemist claims to be able to produce a material which is indistinguishable from the human skin. It is possible that at some time this might be done, but even supposing this invention available we should feel there was little point in trying to make a "thinking machine" more human by dressing it up in such artificial flesh. The form in which we have set the problem reflects this fact in the condition which prevents the interrogator from seeing or touching the other competitors, or hearing -their voices. Some other advantages of the proposed criterion may be shown up by specimen questions and answers. Thus:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Q: Please write me a sonnet on the subject of the Forth Bridge.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A : Count me out on this one. I never could write poetry.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Q: Add 34957 to 70764.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A: (Pause about 30 seconds and then give as answer) 105621.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Q: Do you play chess?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A: Yes.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Q: I have K at my K1, and no other pieces. You have only K at K6 and R at R1. It is your move. What do you play? &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A: (After a pause of 15 seconds) R-R8 mate.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The question and answer method seems to be suitable for introducing almost any one of the fields of human endeavour that we wish to include. We do not wish to penalise the machine for its inability to shine in beauty competitions, nor to penalise a man for losing in a race against an aeroplane. The conditions of our game make these disabilities irrelevant. The "witnesses" can brag, if they consider it advisable, as much as they please about their charms, strength or heroism, but the interrogator cannot demand practical demonstrations.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The game may perhaps be criticised on the ground that the odds are weighted too heavily against the machine. If the man were to try and pretend to be the machine he would clearly make a very poor showing. He would be given away at once by slowness and inaccuracy in arithmetic. May not machines carry out something which ought to be described as thinking but which is very different from what a man does? This objection is a very strong one, but at least we can say that if, nevertheless, a machine can be constructed to play the imitation game satisfactorily, we need not be troubled by this objection.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;It might be urged that when playing the "imitation game" the best strategy for the machine may possibly be something other than imitation of the behaviour of a man. This may be, but I think it is unlikely that there is any great effect of this kind. In any case there is no intention to investigate here the theory of the game, and it will be assumed that the best strategy is to try to provide answers that would naturally be given by a man.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3. The Machines Concerned in the Game&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The question which we put in 1 will not be quite definite until we have specified what we mean by the word "machine." It is natural that we should wish to permit every kind of engineering technique to be used in our machines. We also wish to allow the possibility than an engineer or team of engineers may construct a machine which works, but whose manner of operation cannot be satisfactorily described by its constructors because they have applied a method which is largely experimental. Finally, we wish to exclude from the machines men born in the usual manner. It is difficult to frame the definitions so as to satisfy these three conditions. One might for instance insist that the team of engineers should be all of one sex, but this would not really be satisfactory, for it is probably possible to rear a complete individual from a single cell of the skin (say) of a man. To do so would be a feat of biological technique deserving of the very highest praise, but we would not be inclined to regard it as a case of "constructing a thinking machine." This prompts us to abandon the requirement that every kind of technique should be permitted. We are the more ready to do so in view of the fact that the present interest in "thinking machines" has been aroused by a particular kind of machine, usually called an "electronic computer" or "digital computer." Following this suggestion we only permit digital computers to take part in our game.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;This restriction appears at first sight to be a very drastic one. I shall attempt to show that it is not so in reality. To do this necessitates a short account of the nature and properties of these computers.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;It may also be said that this identification of machines with digital computers, like our criterion for "thinking," will only be unsatisfactory if (contrary to my belief), it turns out that digital computers are unable to give a good showing in the game.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There are already a number of digital computers in working order, and it may be asked, "Why not try the experiment straight away? It would be easy to satisfy the conditions of the game. A number of interrogators could be used, and statistics compiled to show how often the right identification was given." The short answer is that we are not asking whether all digital computers would do well in the game nor whether the computers at present available would do well, but whether there are imaginable computers which would do well. But this is only the short answer. We shall see this question in a different light later.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;4. Digital Computers&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The idea behind digital computers may be explained by saying that these machines are intended to carry out any operations which could be done by a human computer. The human computer is supposed to be following fixed rules; he has no authority to deviate from them in any detail. We may suppose that these rules are supplied in a book, which is altered whenever he is put on to a new job. He has also an unlimited supply of paper on which he does his calculations. He may also do his multiplications and additions on a "desk machine," but this is not important.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If we use the above explanation as a definition we shall be in danger of circularity of argument. We avoid this by giving an outline. of the means by which the desired effect is achieved. A digital computer can usually be regarded as consisting of three parts:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(i) Store.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(ii) Executive unit.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(iii) Control.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The store is a store of information, and corresponds to the human computer's paper, whether this is the paper on which he does his calculations or that on which his book of rules is printed. In so far as the human computer does calculations in his bead a part of the store will correspond to his memory.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The executive unit is the part which carries out the various individual operations involved in a calculation. What these individual operations are will vary from machine to machine. Usually fairly lengthy operations can be done such as "Multiply 3540675445 by 7076345687" but in some machines only very simple ones such as "Write down 0" are possible. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We have mentioned that the "book of rules" supplied to the computer is replaced in the machine by a part of the store. It is then called the "table of instructions." It is the duty of the control to see that these instructions are obeyed correctly and in the right order. The control is so constructed that this necessarily happens.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The information in the store is usually broken up into packets of moderately small size. In one machine, for instance, a packet might consist of ten decimal digits. Numbers are assigned to the parts of the store in which the various packets of information are stored, in some systematic manner. A typical instruction might say-&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Add the number stored in position 6809 to that in 4302 and put the result back into the latter storage position." &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Needless to say it would not occur in the machine expressed in English. It would more likely be coded in a form such as 6809430217. Here 17 says which of various possible operations is to be performed on the two numbers. In this case the)e operation is that described above, viz., "Add the number. . . ." It will be noticed that the instruction takes up 10 digits and so forms one packet of information, very conveniently. The control will normally take the instructions to be obeyed in the order of the positions in which they are stored, but occasionally an instruction such as&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Now obey the instruction stored in position 5606, and continue from there"&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;may be encountered, or again&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"If position 4505 contains 0 obey next the instruction stored in 6707, otherwise continue straight on."&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Instructions of these latter types are very important because they make it possible for a sequence of operations to be replaced over and over again until some condition is fulfilled, but in doing so to obey, not fresh instructions on each repetition, but the same ones over and over again. To take a domestic analogy. Suppose Mother wants Tommy to call at the cobbler's every morning on his way to school to see if her shoes are done, she can ask him afresh every morning. Alternatively she can stick up a notice once and for all in the hall which he will see when he leaves for school and which tells him to call for the shoes, and also to destroy the notice when he comes back if he has the shoes with him.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The reader must accept it as a fact that digital computers can be constructed, and indeed have been constructed, according to the principles we have described, and that they can in fact mimic the actions of a human computer very closely.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The book of rules which we have described our human computer as using is of course a convenient fiction. Actual human computers really remember what they have got to do. If one wants to make a machine mimic the behaviour of the human computer in some complex operation one has to ask him how it is done, and then translate the answer into the form of an instruction table. Constructing instruction tables is usually described as "programming." To "programme a machine to carry out the operation A" means to put the appropriate instruction table into the machine so that it will do A.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;An interesting variant on the idea of a digital computer is a "digital computer with a random element." These have instructions involving the throwing of a die or some equivalent electronic process; one such instruction might for instance be, "Throw the die and put the-resulting number into store 1000." Sometimes such a machine is described as having free will (though I would not use this phrase myself), It is not normally possible to determine from observing a machine whether it has a random element, for a similar effect can be produced by such devices as making the choices depend on the digits of the decimal for .&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Most actual digital computers have only a finite store. There is no theoretical difficulty in the idea of a computer with an unlimited store. Of course only a finite part can have been used at any one time. Likewise only a finite amount can have been constructed, but we can imagine more and more being added as required. Such computers have special theoretical interest and will be called infinitive capacity computers.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The idea of a digital computer is an old one. Charles Babbage, Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge from 1828 to 1839, planned such a machine, called the Analytical Engine, but it was never completed. Although Babbage had all the essential ideas, his machine was not at that time such a very attractive prospect. The speed which would have been available would be definitely faster than a human computer but something like I 00 times slower than the Manchester machine, itself one of the slower of the modern machines, The storage was to be purely mechanical, using wheels and cards.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The fact that Babbage's Analytical Engine was to be entirely mechanical will help us to rid ourselves of a superstition. Importance is often attached to the fact that modern digital computers are electrical, and that the nervous system also is electrical. Since Babbage's machine was not electrical, and since all digital computers are in a sense equivalent, we see that this use of electricity cannot be of theoretical importance. Of course electricity usually comes in where fast signalling is concerned, so that it is not surprising that we find it in both these connections. In the nervous system chemical phenomena are at least as important as electrical. In certain computers the storage system is mainly acoustic. The feature of using electricity is thus seen to be only a very superficial similarity. If we wish to find such similarities we should took rather for mathematical analogies of function. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;5. Universality of Digital Computers&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The digital computers considered in the last section may be classified amongst the "discrete-state machines." These are the machines which move by sudden jumps or clicks from one quite definite state to another. These states are sufficiently different for the possibility of confusion between them to be ignored. Strictly speaking there, are no such machines. Everything really moves continuously. But there are many kinds of machine which can profitably be thought of as being discrete-state machines. For instance in considering the switches for a lighting system it is a convenient fiction that each switch must be definitely on or definitely off. There must be intermediate positions, but for most purposes we can forget about them. As an example of a discrete-state machine we might consider a wheel which clicks round through 120 once a second, but may be stopped by a ]ever which can be operated from outside; in addition a lamp is to light in one of the positions of the wheel. This machine could be described abstractly as follows. The internal state of the machine (which is described by the position of the wheel) may be q1, q2 or q3. There is an input signal i0. or i1 (position of ]ever). The internal state at any moment is determined by the last state and input signal according to the table&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(TABLE DELETED)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The output signals, the only externally visible indication of the internal state (the light) are described by the table&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;State q1 q2 q3&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;output o0 o0 o1&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;This example is typical of discrete-state machines. They can be described by such tables provided they have only a finite number of possible states.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;It will seem that given the initial state of the machine and the input signals it is always possible to predict all future states, This is reminiscent of Laplace's view that from the complete state of the universe at one moment of time, as described by the positions and velocities of all particles, it should be possible to predict all future states. The prediction which we are considering is, however, rather nearer to practicability than that considered by Laplace. The system of the "universe as a whole" is such that quite small errors in the initial conditions can have an overwhelming effect at a later time. The displacement of a single electron by a billionth of a centimetre at one moment might make the difference between a man being killed by an avalanche a year later, or escaping. It is an essential property of the mechanical systems which we have called "discrete-state machines" that this phenomenon does not occur. Even when we consider the actual physical machines instead of the idealised machines, reasonably accurate knowledge of the state at one moment yields reasonably accurate knowledge any number of steps later. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;As we have mentioned, digital computers fall within the class of discrete-state machines. But the number of states of which such a machine is capable is usually enormously large. For instance, the number for the machine now working at Manchester is about 2 165,000, i.e., about 10 50,000. Compare this with our example of the clicking wheel described above, which had three states. It is not difficult to see why the number of states should be so immense. The computer includes a store corresponding to the paper used by a human computer. It must be possible to write into the store any one of the combinations of symbols which might have been written on the paper. For simplicity suppose that only digits from 0 to 9 are used as symbols. Variations in handwriting are ignored. Suppose the computer is allowed 100 sheets of paper each containing 50 lines each with room for 30 digits. Then the number of states is 10 100x50x30 i.e., 10 150,000 . This is about the number of states of three Manchester machines put together. The logarithm to the base two of the number of states is usually called the "storage capacity" of the machine. Thus the Manchester machine has a storage capacity of about 165,000 and the wheel machine of our example about 1.6. If two machines are put together their capacities must be added to obtain the capacity of the resultant machine. This leads to the possibility of statements such as "The Manchester machine contains 64 magnetic tracks each with a capacity of 2560, eight electronic tubes with a capacity of 1280. Miscellaneous storage amounts to about 300 making a total of 174,380." &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Given the table corresponding to a discrete-state machine it is possible to predict what it will do. There is no reason why this calculation should not be carried out by means of a digital computer. Provided it could be carried out sufficiently quickly the digital computer could mimic the behavior of any discrete-state machine. The imitation game could then be played with the machine in question (as B) and the mimicking digital computer (as A) and the interrogator would be unable to distinguish them. Of course the digital computer must have an adequate storage capacity as well as working sufficiently fast. Moreover, it must be programmed afresh for each new machine which it is desired to mimic.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;This special property of digital computers, that they can mimic any discrete-state machine, is described by saying that they are universal machines. The existence of machines with this property has the important consequence that, considerations of speed apart, it is unnecessary to design various new machines to do various computing processes. They can all be done with one digital computer, suitably programmed for each case. It 'ill be seen that as a consequence of this all digital computers are in a sense equivalent.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We may now consider again the point raised at the end of §3. It was suggested tentatively that the question, "Can machines think?" should be replaced by "Are there imaginable digital computers which would do well in the imitation game?" If we wish we can make this superficially more general and ask "Are there discrete-state machines which would do well?" But in view of the universality property we see that either of these questions is equivalent to this, "Let us fix our attention on one particular digital computer C. Is it true that by modifying this computer to have an adequate storage, suitably increasing its speed of action, and providing it with an appropriate programme, C can be made to play satisfactorily the part of A in the imitation game, the part of B being taken by a man?"&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;6. Contrary Views on the Main Question&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We may now consider the ground to have been cleared and we are ready to proceed to the debate on our question, "Can machines think?" and the variant of it quoted at the end of the last section. We cannot altogether abandon the original form of the problem, for opinions will differ as to the appropriateness of the substitution and we must at least listen to what has to be said in this connexion.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;It will simplify matters for the reader if I explain first my own beliefs in the matter. Consider first the more accurate form of the question. I believe that in about fifty years' time it will be possible, to programme computers, with a storage capacity of about 109, to make them play the imitation game so well that an average interrogator will not have more than 70 per cent chance of making the right identification after five minutes of questioning. The original question, "Can machines think?" I believe to be too meaningless to deserve discussion. Nevertheless I believe that at the end of the century the use of words and general educated opinion will have altered so much that one will be able to speak of machines thinking without expecting to be contradicted. I believe further that no useful purpose is served by concealing these beliefs. The popular view that scientists proceed inexorably from well-established fact to well-established fact, never being influenced by any improved conjecture, is quite mistaken. Provided it is made clear which are proved facts and which are conjectures, no harm can result. Conjectures are of great importance since they suggest useful lines of research. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I now proceed to consider opinions opposed to my own.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(1) The Theological Objection&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Thinking is a function of man's immortal soul. God has given an immortal soul to every man and woman, but not to any other animal or to machines. Hence no animal or machine can think.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I am unable to accept any part of this, but will attempt to reply in theological terms. I should find the argument more convincing if animals were classed with men, for there is a greater difference, to my mind, between the typical animate and the inanimate than there is between man and the other animals. The arbitrary character of the orthodox view becomes clearer if we consider how it might appear to a member of some other religious community. How do Christians regard the Moslem view that women have no souls? But let us leave this point aside and return to the main argument. It appears to me that the argument quoted above implies a serious restriction of the omnipotence of the Almighty. It is admitted that there are certain things that He cannot do such as making one equal to two, but should we not believe that He has freedom to confer a soul on an elephant if He sees fit? We might expect that He would only exercise this power in conjunction with a mutation which provided the elephant with an appropriately improved brain to minister to the needs of this sort[. An argument of exactly similar form may be made for the case of machines. It may seem different because it is more difficult to "swallow." But this really only means that we think it would be less likely that He would consider the circumstances suitable for conferring a soul. The circumstances in question are discussed in the rest of this paper. In attempting to construct such machines we should not be irreverently usurping His power of creating souls, any more than we are in the procreation of children: rather we are, in either case, instruments of His will providing .mansions for the souls that He creates.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;However, this is mere speculation. I am not very impressed with theological arguments whatever they may be used to support. Such arguments have often been found unsatisfactory in the past. In the time of Galileo it was argued that the texts, "And the sun stood still . . . and hasted not to go down about a whole day" (Joshua x. 13) and "He laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not move at any time" (Psalm cv. 5) were an adequate refutation of the Copernican theory. With our present knowledge such an argument appears futile. When that knowledge was not available it made a quite different impression. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(2) The "Heads in the Sand" Objection &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The consequences of machines thinking would be too dreadful. Let us hope and believe that they cannot do so." &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;This argument is seldom expressed quite so openly as in the form above. But it affects most of us who think about it at all. We like to believe that Man is in some subtle way superior to the rest of creation. It is best if he can be shown to be necessarily superior, for then there is no danger of him losing his commanding position. The popularity of the theological argument is clearly connected with this feeling. It is likely to be quite strong in intellectual people, since they value the power of thinking more highly than others, and are more inclined to base their belief in the superiority of Man on this power. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I do not think that this argument is sufficiently substantial to require refutation. Consolation would be more appropriate: perhaps this should be sought in the transmigration of souls.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(3) The Mathematical Objection&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There are a number of results of mathematical logic which can be used to show that there are limitations to the powers of discrete-state machines. The best known of these results is known as Godel's theorem ( 1931 ) and shows that in any sufficiently powerful logical system statements can be formulated which can neither be proved nor disproved within the system, unless possibly the system itself is inconsistent. There are other, in some respects similar, results due to Church (1936), Kleene (1935), Rosser, and Turing (1937). The latter result is the most convenient to consider, since it refers directly to machines, whereas the others can only be used in a comparatively indirect argument: for instance if Godel's theorem is to be used we need in addition to have some means of describing logical systems in terms of machines, and machines in terms of logical systems. The result in question refers to a type of machine which is essentially a digital computer with an infinite capacity. It states that there are certain things that such a machine cannot do. If it is rigged up to give answers to questions as in the imitation game, there will be some questions to which it will either give a wrong answer, or fail to give an answer at all however much time is allowed for a reply. There may, of course, be many such questions, and questions which cannot be answered by one machine may be satisfactorily answered by another. We are of course supposing for the present that the questions are of the kind to which an answer "Yes" or "No" is appropriate, rather than questions such as "What do you think of Picasso?" The questions that we know the machines must fail on are of this type, "Consider the machine specified as follows. . . . Will this machine ever answer 'Yes' to any question?" The dots are to be replaced by a description of some machine in a standard form, which could be something like that used in §5. When the machine described bears a certain comparatively simple relation to the machine which is under interrogation, it can be shown that the answer is either wrong or not forthcoming. This is the mathematical result: it is argued that it proves a disability of machines to which the human intellect is not subject.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The short answer to this argument is that although it is established that there are limitations to the Powers If any particular machine, it has only been stated, without any sort of proof, that no such limitations apply to the human intellect. But I do not think this view can be dismissed quite so lightly. Whenever one of these machines is asked the appropriate critical question, and gives a definite answer, we know that this answer must be wrong, and this gives us a certain feeling of superiority. Is this feeling illusory? It is no doubt quite genuine, but I do not think too much importance should be attached to it. We too often give wrong answers to questions ourselves to be justified in being very pleased at such evidence of fallibility on the part of the machines. Further, our superiority can only be felt on such an occasion in relation to the one machine over which we have scored our petty triumph. There would be no question of triumphing simultaneously over all machines. In short, then, there might be men cleverer than any given machine, but then again there might be other machines cleverer again, and so on.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Those who hold to the mathematical argument would, I think, mostly he willing to accept the imitation game as a basis for discussion, Those who believe in the two previous objections would probably not be interested in any criteria.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(4) The Argument from Consciousness&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;This argument is very, well expressed in Professor Jefferson's Lister Oration for 1949, from which I quote. "Not until a machine can write a sonnet or compose a concerto because of thoughts and emotions felt, and not by the chance fall of symbols, could we agree that machine equals brain-that is, not only write it but know that it had written it. No mechanism could feel (and not merely artificially signal, an easy contrivance) pleasure at its successes, grief when its valves fuse, be warmed by flattery, be made miserable by its mistakes, be charmed by sex, be angry or depressed when it cannot get what it wants."&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;This argument appears to be a denial of the validity of our test. According to the most extreme form of this view the only way by which one could be sure that machine thinks is to be the machine and to feel oneself thinking. One could then describe these feelings to the world, but of course no one would be justified in taking any notice. Likewise according to this view the only way to know that a man thinks is to be that particular man. It is in fact the solipsist point of view. It may be the most logical view to hold but it makes communication of ideas difficult. A is liable to believe "A thinks but B does not" whilst B believes "B thinks but A does not." instead of arguing continually over this point it is usual to have the polite convention that everyone thinks.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I am sure that Professor Jefferson does not wish to adopt the extreme and solipsist point of view. Probably he would be quite willing to accept the imitation game as a test. The game (with the player B omitted) is frequently used in practice under the name of viva voce to discover whether some one really understands something or has "learnt it parrot fashion." Let us listen in to a part of such a viva voce:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Interrogator: In the first line of your sonnet which reads "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day," would not "a spring day" do as well or better?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Witness: It wouldn't scan.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Interrogator: How about "a winter's day," That would scan all right.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Witness: Yes, but nobody wants to be compared to a winter's day.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Interrogator: Would you say Mr. Pickwick reminded you of Christmas?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Witness: In a way.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Interrogator: Yet Christmas is a winter's day, and I do not think Mr. Pickwick would mind the comparison.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Witness: I don't think you're serious. By a winter's day one means a typical winter's day, rather than a special one like Christmas.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;And so on, What would Professor Jefferson say if the sonnet-writing machine was able to answer like this in the viva voce? I do not know whether he would regard the machine as "merely artificially signalling" these answers, but if the answers were as satisfactory and sustained as in the above passage I do not think he would describe it as "an easy contrivance." This phrase is, I think, intended to cover such devices as the inclusion in the machine of a record of someone reading a sonnet, with appropriate switching to turn it on from time to time.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In short then, I think that most of those who support the argument from consciousness could be persuaded to abandon it rather than be forced into the solipsist position. They will then probably be willing to accept our test.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I do not wish to give the impression that I think there is no mystery about consciousness. There is, for instance, something of a paradox connected with any attempt to localise it. But I do not think these mysteries necessarily need to be solved before we can answer the question with which we are concerned in this paper.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(5) Arguments from Various Disabilities&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;These arguments take the form, "I grant you that you can make machines do all the things you have mentioned but you will never be able to make one to do X." Numerous features X are suggested in this connexion I offer a selection: &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Be kind, resourceful, beautiful, friendly, have initiative, have a sense of humour, tell right from wrong, make mistakes, fall in love, enjoy strawberries and cream, make some one fall in love with it, learn from experience, use words properly, be the subject of its own thought, have as much diversity of behaviour as a man, do something really new.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;No support is usually offered for these statements. I believe they are mostly founded on the principle of scientific induction. A man has seen thousands of machines in his lifetime. From what he sees of them he draws a number of general conclusions. They are ugly, each is designed for a very limited purpose, when required for a minutely different purpose they are useless, the variety of behaviour of any one of them is very small, etc., etc. Naturally he concludes that these are necessary properties of machines in general. Many of these limitations are associated with the very small storage capacity of most machines. (I am assuming that the idea of storage capacity is extended in some way to cover machines other than discrete-state machines. The exact definition does not matter as no mathematical accuracy is claimed in the present discussion,) A few years ago, when very little had been heard of digital computers, it was possible to elicit much incredulity concerning them, if one mentioned their properties without describing their construction. That was presumably due to a similar application of the principle of scientific induction. These applications of the principle are of course largely unconscious. When a burnt child fears the fire and shows that he fears it by avoiding it, f should say that he was applying scientific induction. (I could of course also describe his behaviour in many other ways.) The works and customs of mankind do not seem to be very suitable material to which to apply scientific induction. A very large part of space-time must be investigated, if reliable results are to be obtained. Otherwise we may (as most English 'Children do) decide that everybody speaks English, and that it is silly to learn French. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;There are, however, special remarks to be made about many of the disabilities that have been mentioned. The inability to enjoy strawberries and cream may have struck the reader as frivolous. Possibly a machine might be made to enjoy this delicious dish, but any attempt to make one do so would be idiotic. What is important about this disability is that it contributes to some of the other disabilities, e.g., to the difficulty of the same kind of friendliness occurring between man and machine as between white man and white man, or between black man and black man.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The claim that "machines cannot make mistakes" seems a curious one. One is tempted to retort, "Are they any the worse for that?" But let us adopt a more sympathetic attitude, and try to see what is really meant. I think this criticism can be explained in terms of the imitation game. It is claimed that the interrogator could distinguish the machine from the man simply by setting them a number of problems in arithmetic. The machine would be unmasked because of its deadly accuracy. The reply to this is simple. The machine (programmed for playing the game) would not attempt to give the right answers to the arithmetic problems. It would deliberately introduce mistakes in a manner calculated to confuse the interrogator. A mechanical fault would probably show itself through an unsuitable decision as to what sort of a mistake to make in the arithmetic. Even this interpretation of the criticism is not sufficiently sympathetic. But we cannot afford the space to go into it much further. It seems to me that this criticism depends on a confusion between two kinds of mistake, We may call them "errors of functioning" and "errors of conclusion." Errors of functioning are due to some mechanical or electrical fault which causes the machine to behave otherwise than it was designed to do. In philosophical discussions one likes to ignore the possibility of such errors; one is therefore discussing "abstract machines." These abstract machines are mathematical fictions rather than physical objects. By definition they are incapable of errors of functioning. In this sense we can truly say that "machines can never make mistakes." Errors of conclusion can only arise when some meaning is attached to the output signals from the machine. The machine might, for instance, type out mathematical equations, or sentences in English. When a false proposition is typed we say that the machine has committed an error of conclusion. There is clearly no reason at all for saying that a machine cannot make this kind of mistake. It might do nothing but type out repeatedly "O = I." To take a less perverse example, it might have some method for drawing conclusions by scientific induction. We must expect such a method to lead occasionally to erroneous results.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The claim that a machine cannot be the subject of its own thought can of course only be answered if it can be shown that the machine has some thought with some subject matter. Nevertheless, "the subject matter of a machine's operations" does seem to mean something, at least to the people who deal with it. If, for instance, the machine was trying to find a solution of the equation x2 - 40x - 11 = 0 one would be tempted to describe this equation as part of the machine's subject matter at that moment. In this sort of sense a machine undoubtedly can be its own subject matter. It may be used to help in making up its own programmes, or to predict the effect of alterations in its own structure. By observing the results of its own behaviour it can modify its own programmes so as to achieve some purpose more effectively. These are possibilities of the near future, rather than Utopian dreams.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The criticism that a machine cannot have much diversity of behaviour is just a way of saying that it cannot have much storage capacity. Until fairly recently a storage capacity of even a thousand digits was very rare. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The criticisms that we are considering here are often disguised forms of the argument from consciousness, Usually if one maintains that a machine can do one of these things, and describes the kind of method that the machine could use, one will not make much of an impression. It is thought that tile method (whatever it may be, for it must be mechanical) is really rather base. Compare the parentheses in Jefferson's statement quoted on page 22.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(6) Lady Lovelace's Objection&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Our most detailed information of Babbage's Analytical Engine comes from a memoir by Lady Lovelace ( 1842). In it she states, "The Analytical Engine has no pretensions to originate anything. It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform" (her italics). This statement is quoted by Hartree ( 1949) who adds: "This does not imply that it may not be possible to construct electronic equipment which will 'think for itself,' or in which, in biological terms, one could set up a conditioned reflex, which would serve as a basis for 'learning.' Whether this is possible in principle or not is a stimulating and exciting question, suggested by some of these recent developments But it did not seem that the machines constructed or projected at the time had this property."&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I am in thorough agreement with Hartree over this. It will be noticed that he does not assert that the machines in question had not got the property, but rather that the evidence available to Lady Lovelace did not encourage her to believe that they had it. It is quite possible that the machines in question had in a sense got this property. For suppose that some discrete-state machine has the property. The Analytical Engine was a universal digital computer, so that, if its storage capacity and speed were adequate, it could by suitable programming be made to mimic the machine in question. Probably this argument did not occur to the Countess or to Babbage. In any case there was no obligation on them to claim all that could be claimed.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;This whole question will be considered again under the heading of learning machines.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A variant of Lady Lovelace's objection states that a machine can "never do anything really new." This may be parried for a moment with the saw, "There is nothing new under the sun." Who can be certain that "original work" that he has done was not simply the growth of the seed planted in him by teaching, or the effect of following well-known general principles. A better variant of the objection says that a machine can never "take us by surprise." This statement is a more direct challenge and can be met directly. Machines take me by surprise with great frequency. This is largely because I do not do sufficient calculation to decide what to expect them to do, or rather because, although I do a calculation, I do it in a hurried, slipshod fashion, taking risks. Perhaps I say to myself, "I suppose the Voltage here ought to he the same as there: anyway let's assume it is." Naturally I am often wrong, and the result is a surprise for me for by the time the experiment is done these assumptions have been forgotten. These admissions lay me open to lectures on the subject of my vicious ways, but do not throw any doubt on my credibility when I testify to the surprises I experience.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I do not expect this reply to silence my critic. He will probably say that h surprises are due to some creative mental act on my part, and reflect no credit on the machine. This leads us back to the argument from consciousness, and far from the idea of surprise. It is a line of argument we must consider closed, but it is perhaps worth remarking that the appreciation of something as surprising requires as much of a "creative mental act" whether the surprising event originates from a man, a book, a machine or anything else.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The view that machines cannot give rise to surprises is due, I believe, to a fallacy to which philosophers and mathematicians are particularly subject. This is the assumption that as soon as a fact is presented to a mind all consequences of that fact spring into the mind simultaneously with it. It is a very useful assumption under many circumstances, but one too easily forgets that it is false. A natural consequence of doing so is that one then assumes that there is no virtue in the mere working out of consequences from data and general principles.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(7) Argument from Continuity in the Nervous System &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The nervous system is certainly not a discrete-state machine. A small error in the information about the size of a nervous impulse impinging on a neuron, may make a large difference to the size of the outgoing impulse. It may be argued that, this being so, one cannot expect to be able to mimic the behaviour of the nervous system with a discrete-state system.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;It is true that a discrete-state machine must be different from a continuous machine. But if we adhere to the conditions of the imitation game, the interrogator will not be able to take any advantage of this difference. The situation can be made clearer if we consider sonic other simpler continuous machine. A differential analyser will do very well. (A differential analyser is a certain kind of machine not of the discrete-state type used for some kinds of calculation.) Some of these provide their answers in a typed form, and so are suitable for taking part in the game. It would not be possible for a digital computer to predict exactly what answers the differential analyser would give to a problem, but it would be quite capable of giving the right sort of answer. For instance, if asked to give the value of (actually about 3.1416) it would be reasonable to choose at random between the values 3.12, 3.13, 3.14, 3.15, 3.16 with the probabilities of 0.05, 0.15, 0.55, 0.19, 0.06 (say). Under these circumstances it would be very difficult for the interrogator to distinguish the differential analyser from the digital computer. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(8) The Argument from Informality of Behaviour &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;It is not possible to produce a set of rules purporting to describe what a man should do in every conceivable set of circumstances. One might for instance have a rule that one is to stop when one sees a red traffic light, and to go if one sees a green one, but what if by some fault both appear together? One may perhaps decide that it is safest to stop. But some further difficulty may well arise from this decision later. To attempt to provide rules of conduct to cover every eventuality, even those arising from traffic lights, appears to be impossible. With all this I agree.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;From this it is argued that we cannot be machines. I shall try to reproduce the argument, but I fear I shall hardly do it justice. It seems to run something like this. "if each man had a definite set of rules of conduct by which he regulated his life he would be no better than a machine. But there are no such rules, so men cannot be machines." The undistributed middle is glaring. I do not think the argument is ever put quite like this, but I believe this is the argument used nevertheless. There may however be a certain confusion between "rules of conduct" and "laws of behaviour" to cloud the issue. By "rules of conduct" I mean precepts such as "Stop if you see red lights," on which one can act, and of which one can be conscious. By "laws of behaviour" I mean laws of nature as applied to a man's body such as "if you pinch him he will squeak." If we substitute "laws of behaviour which regulate his life" for "laws of conduct by which he regulates his life" in the argument quoted the undistributed middle is no longer insuperable. For we believe that it is not only true that being regulated by laws of behaviour implies being some sort of machine (though not necessarily a discrete-state machine), but that conversely being such a machine implies being regulated by such laws. However, we cannot so easily convince ourselves of the absence of complete laws of behaviour as of complete rules of conduct. The only way we know of for finding such laws is scientific observation, and we certainly know of no circumstances under which we could say, "We have searched enough. There are no such laws."&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We can demonstrate more forcibly that any such statement would be unjustified. For suppose we could be sure of finding such laws if they existed. Then given a discrete-state machine it should certainly be possible to discover by observation sufficient about it to predict its future behaviour, and this within a reasonable time, say a thousand years. But this does not seem to be the case. I have set up on the Manchester computer a small programme using only 1,000 units of storage, whereby the machine supplied with one sixteen-figure number replies with another within two seconds. I would defy anyone to learn from these replies sufficient about the programme to be able to predict any replies to untried values.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(9) The Argument from Extrasensory Perception &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I assume that the reader is familiar with the idea of extrasensory perception, and the meaning of the four items of it, viz., telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition and psychokinesis. These disturbing phenomena seem to deny all our usual scientific ideas. How we should like to discredit them! Unfortunately the statistical evidence, at least for telepathy, is overwhelming. It is very difficult to rearrange one's ideas so as to fit these new facts in. Once one has accepted them it does not seem a very big step to believe in ghosts and bogies. The idea that our bodies move simply according to the known laws of physics, together with some others not yet discovered but somewhat similar, would be one of the first to go.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;This argument is to my mind quite a strong one. One can say in reply that many scientific theories seem to remain workable in practice, in spite of clashing with ESP; that in fact one can get along very nicely if one forgets about it. This is rather cold comfort, and one fears that thinking is just the kind of phenomenon where ESP may be especially relevant.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A more specific argument based on ESP might run as follows: "Let us play the imitation game, using as witnesses a man who is good as a telepathic receiver, and a digital computer. The interrogator can ask such questions as 'What suit does the card in my right hand belong to?' The man by telepathy or clairvoyance gives the right answer 130 times out of 400 cards. The machine can only guess at random, and perhaps gets 104 right, so the interrogator makes the right identification." There is an interesting possibility which opens here. Suppose the digital computer contains a random number generator. Then it will be natural to use this to decide what answer to give. But then the random number generator will be subject to the psychokinetic powers of the interrogator. Perhaps this psychokinesis might cause the machine to guess right more often than would be expected on a probability calculation, so that the interrogator might still be unable to make the right identification. On the other hand, he might be able to guess right without any questioning, by clairvoyance. With ESP anything may happen.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If telepathy is admitted it will be necessary to tighten our test up. The situation could be regarded as analogous to that which would occur if the interrogator were talking to himself and one of the competitors was listening with his ear to the wall. To put the competitors into a "telepathy-proof room" would satisfy all requirements.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;7. Learning Machines&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The reader will have anticipated that I have no very convincing arguments of a positive nature to support my views. If I had I should not have taken such pains to point out the fallacies in contrary views. Such evidence as I have I shall now give.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Let us return for a moment to Lady Lovelace's objection, which stated that the machine can only do what we tell it to do. One could say that a man can "inject" an idea into the machine, and that it will respond to a certain extent and then drop into quiescence, like a piano string struck by a hammer. Another simile would be an atomic pile of less than critical size: an injected idea is to correspond to a neutron entering the pile from without. Each such neutron will cause a certain disturbance which eventually dies away. If, however, the size of the pile is sufficiently increased, tire disturbance caused by such an incoming neutron will very likely go on and on increasing until the whole pile is destroyed. Is there a corresponding phenomenon for minds, and is there one for machines? There does seem to be one for the human mind. The majority of them seem to be "subcritical," i.e., to correspond in this analogy to piles of subcritical size. An idea presented to such a mind will on average give rise to less than one idea in reply. A smallish proportion are supercritical. An idea presented to such a mind that may give rise to a whole "theory" consisting of secondary, tertiary and more remote ideas. Animals minds seem to be very definitely subcritical. Adhering to this analogy we ask, "Can a machine be made to be supercritical?"&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The "skin-of-an-onion" analogy is also helpful. In considering the functions of the mind or the brain we find certain operations which we can explain in purely mechanical terms. This we say does not correspond to the real mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip off if we are to find the real mind. But then in what remains we find a further skin to be stripped off, and so on. Proceeding in this way do we ever come to the "real" mind, or do we eventually come to the skin which has nothing in it? In the latter case the whole mind is mechanical. (It would not be a discrete-state machine however. We have discussed this.)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;These last two paragraphs do not claim to be convincing arguments. They should rather be described as "recitations tending to produce belief."&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The only really satisfactory support that can be given for the view expressed at the beginning of §6, will be that provided by waiting for the end of the century and then doing the experiment described. But what can we say in the meantime? What steps should be taken now if the experiment is to be successful? &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;As I have explained, the problem is mainly one of programming. Advances in engineering will have to be made too, but it seems unlikely that these will not be adequate for the requirements. Estimates of the storage capacity of the brain vary from 1010 to 1015 binary digits. I incline to the lower values and believe that only a very small fraction is used for the higher types of thinking. Most of it is probably used for the retention of visual impressions, I should be surprised if more than 109 was required for satisfactory playing of the imitation game, at any rate against a blind man. (Note: The capacity of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edition, is 2 X 109) A storage capacity of 107, would be a very practicable possibility even by present techniques. It is probably not necessary to increase the speed of operations of the machines at all. Parts of modern machines which can be regarded as analogs of nerve cells work about a thousand times faster than the latter. This should provide a "margin of safety" which could cover losses of speed arising in many ways, Our problem then is to find out how to programme these machines to play the game. At my present rate of working I produce about a thousand digits of progratiirne a day, so that about sixty workers, working steadily through the fifty years might accomplish the job, if nothing went into the wastepaper basket. Some more expeditious method seems desirable.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In the process of trying to imitate an adult human mind we are bound to think a good deal about the process which has brought it to the state that it is in. We may notice three components.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(a) The initial state of the mind, say at birth, &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(b) The education to which it has been subjected, &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(c) Other experience, not to be described as education, to which it has been subjected.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Instead of trying to produce a programme to simulate the adult mind, why not rather try to produce one which simulates the child's? If this were then subjected to an appropriate course of education one would obtain the adult brain. Presumably the child brain is something like a notebook as one buys it from the stationer's. Rather little mechanism, and lots of blank sheets. (Mechanism and writing are from our point of view almost synonymous.) Our hope is that there is so little mechanism in the child brain that something like it can be easily programmed. The amount of work in the education we can assume, as a first approximation, to be much the same as for the human child.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We have thus divided our problem into two parts. The child programme and the education process. These two remain very closely connected. We cannot expect to find a good child machine at the first attempt. One must experiment with teaching one such machine and see how well it learns. One can then try another and see if it is better or worse. There is an obvious connection between this process and evolution, by the identifications &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Structure of the child machine = hereditary material &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Changes of the child machine = mutation,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Natural selection = judgment of the experimenter &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;One may hope, however, that this process will be more expeditious than evolution. The survival of the fittest is a slow method for measuring advantages. The experimenter, by the exercise of intelligence, should he able to speed it up. Equally important is the fact that he is not restricted to random mutations. If he can trace a cause for some weakness he can probably think of the kind of mutation which will improve it.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;It will not be possible to apply exactly the same teaching process to the machine as to a normal child. It will not, for instance, be provided with legs, so that it could not be asked to go out and fill the coal scuttle. Possibly it might not have eyes. But however well these deficiencies might be overcome by clever engineering, one could not send the creature to school without the other children making excessive fun of it. It must be given some tuition. We need not be too concerned about the legs, eyes, etc. The example of Miss Helen Keller shows that education can take place provided that communication in both directions between teacher and pupil can take place by some means or other. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We normally associate punishments and rewards with the teaching process. Some simple child machines can be constructed or programmed on this sort of principle. The machine has to be so constructed that events which shortly preceded the occurrence of a punishment signal are unlikely to be repeated, whereas a reward signal increased the probability of repetition of the events which led up to it. These definitions do not presuppose any feelings on the part of the machine, I have done some experiments with one such child machine, and succeeded in teaching it a few things, but the teaching method was too unorthodox for the experiment to be considered really successful.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The use of punishments and rewards can at best be a part of the teaching process. Roughly speaking, if the teacher has no other means of communicating to the pupil, the amount of information which can reach him does not exceed the total number of rewards and punishments applied. By the time a child has learnt to repeat "Casabianca" he would probably feel very sore indeed, if the text could only be discovered by a "Twenty Questions" technique, every "NO" taking the form of a blow. It is necessary therefore to have some other "unemotional" channels of communication. If these are available it is possible to teach a machine by punishments and rewards to obey orders given in some language, e.g., a symbolic language. These orders are to be transmitted through the "unemotional" channels. The use of this language will diminish greatly the number of punishments and rewards required.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Opinions may vary as to the complexity which is suitable in the child machine. One might try to make it as simple as possible consistently with the general principles. Alternatively one might have a complete system of logical inference "built in."' In the latter case the store would be largely occupied with definitions and propositions. The propositions would have various kinds of status, e.g., well-established facts, conjectures, mathematically proved theorems, statements given by an authority, expressions having the logical form of proposition but not belief-value. Certain propositions may be described as "imperatives." The machine should be so constructed that as soon as an imperative is classed as "well established" the appropriate action automatically takes place. To illustrate this, suppose the teacher says to the machine, "Do your homework now." This may cause "Teacher says 'Do your homework now' " to be included amongst the well-established facts. Another such fact might be, "Everything that teacher says is true." Combining these may eventually lead to the imperative, "Do your homework now," being included amongst the well-established facts, and this, by the construction of the machine, will mean that the homework actually gets started, but the effect is very satisfactory. The processes of inference used by the machine need not be such as would satisfy the most exacting logicians. There might for instance be no hierarchy of types. But this need not mean that type fallacies will occur, any more than we are bound to fall over unfenced cliffs. Suitable imperatives (expressed within the systems, not forming part of the rules of the system) such as "Do not use a class unless it is a subclass of one which has been mentioned by teacher" can have a similar effect to "Do not go too near the edge."&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The imperatives that can be obeyed by a machine that has no limbs are bound to be of a rather intellectual character, as in the example (doing homework) given above. important amongst such imperatives will be ones which regulate the order in which the rules of the logical system concerned are to be applied, For at each stage when one is using a logical system, there is a very large number of alternative steps, any of which one is permitted to apply, so far as obedience to the rules of the logical system is concerned. These choices make the difference between a brilliant and a footling reasoner, not the difference between a sound and a fallacious one. Propositions leading to imperatives of this kind might be "When Socrates is mentioned, use the syllogism in Barbara" or "If one method has been proved to be quicker than another, do not use the slower method." Some of these may be "given by authority," but others may be produced by the machine itself, e.g. by scientific induction. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The idea of a learning machine may appear paradoxical to some readers. How can the rules of operation of the machine change? They should describe completely how the machine will react whatever its history might be, whatever changes it might undergo. The rules are thus quite time-invariant. This is quite true. The explanation of the paradox is that the rules which get changed in the learning process are of a rather less pretentious kind, claiming only an ephemeral validity. The reader may draw a parallel with the Constitution of the United States.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;An important feature of a learning machine is that its teacher will often be very largely ignorant of quite what is going on inside, although he may still be able to some extent to predict his pupil's behavior. This should apply most strongly to the later education of a machine arising from a child machine of well-tried design (or programme). This is in clear contrast with normal procedure when using a machine to do computations one's object is then to have a clear mental picture of the state of the machine at each moment in the computation. This object can only be achieved with a struggle. The view that "the machine can only do what we know how to order it to do,"' appears strange in face of this. Most of the programmes which we can put into the machine will result in its doing something that we cannot make sense (if at all, or which we regard as completely random behaviour. Intelligent behaviour presumably consists in a departure from the completely disciplined behaviour involved in computation, but a rather slight one, which does not give rise to random behaviour, or to pointless repetitive loops. Another important result of preparing our machine for its part in the imitation game by a process of teaching and learning is that "human fallibility" is likely to be omitted in a rather natural way, i.e., without special "coaching." (The reader should reconcile this with the point of view on pages 23 and 24.) Processes that are learnt do not produce a hundred per cent certainty of result; if they did they could not be unlearnt.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;It is probably wise to include a random element in a learning machine. A random element is rather useful when we are searching for a solution of some problem. Suppose for instance we wanted to find a number between 50 and 200 which was equal to the square of the sum of its digits, we might start at 51 then try 52 and go on until we got a number that worked. Alternatively we might choose numbers at random until we got a good one. This method has the advantage that it is unnecessary to keep track of the values that have been tried, but the disadvantage that one may try the same one twice, but this is not very important if there are several solutions. The systematic method has the disadvantage that there may be an enormous block without any solutions in the region which has to be investigated first, Now the learning process may be regarded as a search for a form of behaviour which will satisfy the teacher (or some other criterion). Since there is probably a very large number of satisfactory solutions the random method seems to be better than the systematic. It should be noticed that it is used in the analogous process of evolution. But there the systematic method is not possible. How could one keep track of the different genetical combinations that had been tried, so as to avoid trying them again?&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We may hope that machines will eventually compete with men in all purely intellectual fields. But which are the best ones to start with? Even this is a difficult decision. Many people think that a very abstract activity, like the playing of chess, would be best. It can also be maintained that it is best to provide the machine with the best sense organs that money can buy, and then teach it to understand and speak English. This process could follow the normal teaching of a child. Things would be pointed out and named, etc. Again I do not know what the right answer is, but I think both approaches should be tried.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We can only see a short distance ahead, but we can see plenty there that needs to be done.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112245826245707567?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112245826245707567/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112245826245707567' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112245826245707567'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112245826245707567'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/07/computing-machinery-and-intelligence.html' title='COMPUTING MACHINERY AND INTELLIGENCE'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112232591700631313</id><published>2005-07-25T14:11:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-07-25T14:11:57.016-07:00</updated><title type='text'>GIZMO</title><content type='html'>Download Gizmo Project Now: It's Free!&lt;br /&gt;PC or Mac, your choice (and soon Linux, too)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;http://www.gizmoproject.com/&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Gizmo is a Free Phone for Your Computer&lt;br /&gt;That makes calling as easy as instant messaging&lt;br /&gt;An internet telephone. As simple as an instant messenger. Now you’re talking.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Make all your calls from the comfort of your desktop. With Gizmo, it’s point, click, talk. For free.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Say goodbye to high price calling, and say “hello” to anyone online, anywhere on earth.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112232591700631313?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112232591700631313/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112232591700631313' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112232591700631313'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112232591700631313'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/07/gizmo.html' title='GIZMO'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112179604621605712</id><published>2005-07-19T11:00:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-07-19T11:00:46.236-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Pionieri italiani dell editoria elettronica</title><content type='html'>&lt;br /&gt;In Italia tra i pionieri che si occuparono di editoria elettronica si può ricordare per esempio che Stanislao Valsesia "riferiva della biblioteca elettronica e dell'Information retrieval; Carlo Tagliavini descriveva l'automazione nelle ricerche fonetiche (ma anche morfologiche e sintattiche) condotte sulla lingua contemporanea (di Diego Fabbri) nell'Istituto di Glottologia dell'Università di Padova (dall'allora laureando Antonio Zampollo); Silvio Ceccato si occupava di ciò che oggi chiameremmo traduzione automatica; Nanni Balestrini presentava un'esperienza di composizione automatica di poesia, mentre Franco Lucentini ricostruiva la storia degli automi e Umberto Eco argomentava intorno a La forma del disordine" (Raul Mordenti, Filologia ed elettronica in "Rivista IBM", anno XXVIII, numero 1, 1992, pag. 62).&lt;br /&gt;Anche se la questione non è molto nota, va detto uno dei primi uomini al mondo che ha pensato di utilizzare il computer per l'analisi letteraria è un italiano.&lt;br /&gt;Si tratta del padre gesuita Roberto Busa, del Centro Filosofico di Gallarate, studioso di Tommaso d'Aquino, uno dei primi al mondo a far convergere libro e computer. Sin dalla nascita dei primi calcolatori aveva pensato a un modo per utilizzarli nella catalogazione del corpus tomistico e per la creazione di indici sistematici. A New York, coinvolgendo IBM, sin dal dal 1949 ha cominciato a lavorare sulle macchine a schede perforate per inserire in un computer tutte le opere di S. Tommaso, in latino, codificando ogni parola e registrandone tutte le flessioni. Questo colossale lavoro lo ha impegnato per vari decenni e, agli inizi degli anni '90, è stato pubblicato su cd-rom. La sua opera ci permette oggi di rintracciare in pochi istanti tutti i passi che contengono una qualsiasi parola contenuta nei 118 libri di S. Tommaso e in altri 61 di autori contemporanei. &lt;br /&gt;Questo approccio consente un'analisi linguistica del latino dell'epoca, dello stile dell'autore, delle occorrenze di ogni termine rapidissime. Le stesse operazioni, fatte a mano, richiederebbero mesi o anni di lavoro. E addirittura il sistema permette di distinguere i termini omografi, quei termini cioè, che si scrivono nello stesso modo ma derivano da lemmi differenti e possiedono perciò differenti significati. Cercando la parola facies, per esempio - che può essere sia il lemma faccia, viso, sia una forma flessa dal verbo facio (fare) -, il sistema avverte che esistono due significati possibili e richiede quale si desidera rintracciare.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In Italia un altro pionieristico lavoro di utilizzo del computer per la comprensione di un testo letterario, risale al 1965, ed è uno studio della Divina Commedia realizzato da IBM. I risultati di questo esperimento sono stati pubblicati in un voluminoso libro di circa 1.000 pagine in cui, oltre al testo di Dante, venivano riportate le concordanze, il lessico, il rimario e altri indici ottenuti mediante l'elaboratore. Il libro era stato preparato per celebrare il settimo anniversario del centenario della nascita del poeta e si avvaleva della consulenza di Carlo Tagliavini, ordinario di glottologia nell'Università di Padova. "Per le concordanze dantesche, - si legge nella prefazione - si può ragionevolmente pensare che un'opera eseguita unicamente con mezzi manuali come quella del Fay abbia occupato il suo autore per non meno di 5 o 6 anni. Per lo stesso lavoro (e per di più completo e non con l'omissione delle parole di frequenza maggiore) una volta eseguita la perforazione delle schede (che ha impegnato 2 perforatrici per 1 settimana), il sistema IBM 7090-1401 non ha impiegato più di 9 ore! A ciò si deve aggiungere la programmazione preventiva e tutto il lavoro di controllo, di divisioni e inserzioni manuali..." (Dante Alighieri, La Divina Commedia. Testo, concordanze, lessici, rimario, indici, IBM Italia, 1965, pag. XXI). Oggi naturalmente, con un semplice personal computer si impiegherebbe molto meno. &lt;br /&gt;I dati pubblicati su questo voluminoso catalogo, contenevano gli elenchi delle concordanze erano disponibili sia in ordine alfabetico che in ordine di frequenza. Così si può vedere facilmente che la parola che ricorre maggiormente è la congiunzione "e" che compare 1341 volte nell'Inferno, 1281 nel Purgatorio e 1262 nel Paradiso, per un totale di 3884 occorrenze. La scelta di pubblicare questi dati su un libro di carta a quei tempi era obbligatoria, per farli circolare. Oggi, la stessa quantità di informazioni non ha più bisogno di un supporto fisico, e potrebbe viaggiare in pochi istanti da un capo all'altro del mondo grazie al WEB.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ma va detto che questi lavori pionieristici qui citati (a parte l'opera di Roberto Busa che ha avuto una certa diffusione nel mondo tra gli accademici che si occupano di Tommaso), non hanno avuto una diffusione di massa e sono rimasti degli esperimenti un po' chiusi nel cassetto. Perché potesse nascere un'editoria elettronica di massa, e un mercato, dovevano ancora realizzarsi molte altre tappe. E infatti ci sono voluti alcuni decenni perché questo accadesse.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112179604621605712?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112179604621605712/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112179604621605712' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112179604621605712'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112179604621605712'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/07/pionieri-italiani-dell-editoria.html' title='Pionieri italiani dell editoria elettronica'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112147900204469337</id><published>2005-07-15T18:56:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-07-15T18:56:42.043-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Marsilio Ficino</title><content type='html'>Marsilio Ficino&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Lettera a Domenico Beniveni sui principi della musica&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;traduzione e note a cura di Andrea Melis&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sui principi della musica&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Marsilio Ficino a Domenico Beniveni [1], filosofo illustre e musico insigne s.d.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112147900204469337?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112147900204469337/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112147900204469337' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112147900204469337'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112147900204469337'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/07/marsilio-ficino.html' title='Marsilio Ficino'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112147890357349959</id><published>2005-07-15T18:55:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-07-15T18:55:03.590-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Le Muse e i loro attributi</title><content type='html'>Le Muse e i loro attributi&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;CLIO &lt;br /&gt;Musa della Storia, trae il nome da kleos (gloria) o da kleiein (celebrare). E' raffigurata come una vergine coronata d'alloro, con una tromba in mano ed un volume nell'altra.&lt;br /&gt;EUTERPE&lt;br /&gt;Musa della Musica. Il suo nome significa colei che sa piacere. &lt;br /&gt;E' rappresentata come una donzella coronata di fiori che suona il flauto, del quale è considerata l'inventrice.&lt;br /&gt;TALIA&lt;br /&gt;Musa della Commedia, deriva il nome da thallein (fiorire). &lt;br /&gt;E' rappresentata come una giovinetta coronata di edera, che reca in mano una maschera e calza stivaletti a mezza gamba.&lt;br /&gt;MELPOMENE&lt;br /&gt;Musa della Tragedia, trae il nome da melpein (cantare). E' raffigurata come una donna calzata di coturni, con in mano uno scettro ed un pugnale insanguinato.&lt;br /&gt;TERSICORE&lt;br /&gt;Musa della Danza. Il suo nome significa che ama la danza. E' raffigurata come una giovinetta, coronata di ghirlande, che danza suonando l'arpa.&lt;br /&gt;ERATO&lt;br /&gt;Musa della Poesia lirica e della anacreontica, deriva il nome da Eros (amore). E' rappresentata come una ninfa coronata di mirti e di rose, che nella mano sinistra regge una lira e nella destra un arco.&lt;br /&gt;POLINNIA&lt;br /&gt;Musa della Retorica e dea della Musica vocale. Il suo nome deriva da poly (molto) e Hymnos (inno), oppure da mnasthai (ricordarsi). E' raffigurata con una corona di fiori o di perle, bianco vestita, la mano destra nell'atto di arringare e nella sinistra uno scettro.&lt;br /&gt;URANIA&lt;br /&gt;Musa dell'Astronomia. Trae nome da Ouranos (cielo) ed è raffigurata come una vergine con in una mano un globo e nell'altra una verga.&lt;br /&gt;CALLIOPE&lt;br /&gt;Musa dell'Eloquenza e della Poesia eroica. Il suo nome letteralmente significa bella voce ed è raffigurata con stilo e tavolette in mano.&lt;br /&gt;Molteplici sono gli appellativi dati alle Muse, sovente riferiti alle località in cui esse soggiornarono: Aganippidi, Aonidi, Camene, Castalidi, Eliconidi, Ilissiadi, Libetriadi, Meonidi, Olimpiadi e Olimpiche, Pegasdi, Pieridi, Tespiadi o Tespie, Alate, Ardalidi, Citeriadi, Janzie, Ligie, Lidie, Mnemosinidi, Parnassidi o Parnassie, Partenie o Partenidi, Pateidi, Pimpleiadi o Pimplee.&lt;br /&gt;http://www.bo.astro.it/~biblio/Vultus-Uraniae/attributi.html&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112147890357349959?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112147890357349959/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112147890357349959' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112147890357349959'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112147890357349959'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/07/le-muse-e-i-loro-attributi.html' title='Le Muse e i loro attributi'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112042657505483770</id><published>2005-07-03T14:36:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-07-03T14:36:15.056-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Toti Scialoja</title><content type='html'>Caval donato non si guarda in bocca&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;coltel dannato non si scorda in brocca&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;cappel drizzato non si accorda in ciocca&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;capel dorato non si incorda in crocca&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;castel domato non si inarca in rocca&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;casal datato non si lorda in biacca&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;cavol drogato non si attarda in bocca.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112042657505483770?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112042657505483770/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112042657505483770' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112042657505483770'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112042657505483770'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/07/toti-scialoja_03.html' title='Toti Scialoja'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-112042639944839693</id><published>2005-07-03T14:33:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-07-03T14:33:19.463-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Toti Scialoja</title><content type='html'>&lt;br /&gt;L'incauta tinca che mi fissa a Sessa&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Aurunca con la sua pupilla bianca&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;pare non si convinca d'esser lessa.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-112042639944839693?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/112042639944839693/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=112042639944839693' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112042639944839693'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/112042639944839693'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/07/toti-scialoja.html' title='Toti Scialoja'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-111908615403421206</id><published>2005-06-18T02:15:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-06-18T02:15:54.046-07:00</updated><title type='text'> Just the right bullets </title><content type='html'>There is a light in the forest &lt;br /&gt;There is a face in the tree &lt;br /&gt;I'll pull you out of the chorus &lt;br /&gt;And the first one's always free &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;You can never go hunting &lt;br /&gt;With just a flintlock and a hound &lt;br /&gt;You won't go home with a bunting &lt;br /&gt;If you blow a hundred rounds &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;It takes much more than wild courage &lt;br /&gt;Or you'll hit just the tattered clouds &lt;br /&gt;You must have just the right bullets &lt;br /&gt;And the first one's always free &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;You must be careful in the forest &lt;br /&gt;Broken glass and rusty nails &lt;br /&gt;If you're to bring back something for us &lt;br /&gt;I have bullets for sale &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Why be a fool when you can chase away &lt;br /&gt;Your blind and your gloom &lt;br /&gt;I have blessed each one of these bullets &lt;br /&gt;And they shine just like a spoon &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;To have sixty silver wishes &lt;br /&gt;Is a small price to pay &lt;br /&gt;They'll be your private little fishes &lt;br /&gt;And they'll never swim away &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I just want you to be happy &lt;br /&gt;That's my only wish &lt;br /&gt;I'll fix your wagon and your musket &lt;br /&gt;And the spoon will have his dish &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;And I shudder at the thought of your &lt;br /&gt;Poor empty hunter's pouch &lt;br /&gt;So I'll keep the wind from your barrel &lt;br /&gt;And bless the roof of your house &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tom Waits&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-111908615403421206?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/111908615403421206/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=111908615403421206' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111908615403421206'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111908615403421206'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/06/just-right-bullets.html' title=' Just the right bullets '/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-111833876908997363</id><published>2005-06-09T10:39:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-06-09T10:39:29.100-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Ian Clarke</title><content type='html'> “l’unico modo per assicurare la sopravvivenza della democrazia è avere la garanzia che il governo non controlli la possibilità dei cittadini di condividere informazioni e di comunicare”.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-111833876908997363?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/111833876908997363/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=111833876908997363' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111833876908997363'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111833876908997363'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/06/ian-clarke.html' title='Ian Clarke'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-111818526481984871</id><published>2005-06-07T16:01:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-06-07T16:01:04.823-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Pierre Lévy</title><content type='html'>Tratto dall'ultimo suo volume (L'intelligenza collettiva, Feltrinelli, 1996, £. 40.000), presentiamo lo stralcio di un capitolo estremamente significativo di Pierre Lévy, uno dei pochi autori con messaggi autenticamente nuovi e trans culturali di questo momento. Per questo ringraziamo autore ed editore.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Cnosso&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Il progetto dell'intelligenza collettiva è realistico? Si tratta di una utopia impossibile o si inscrive in un orizzonte di fattibilità? Prima di rispondere direttamente a questa domanda, dobbiamo chiarire quello che si deve intendere per fattibile, possibile e reale.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Il possibile comprende i sistemi di fatti non contraddittori, che non si oppongono ad alcuna legge fisica, ma non tiene conto delle circostanze presenti. La sfera del fattibile è molto più ristretta di quella del possibile: le sue opzioni integrano le risorse disponibili hic et nunc nel rispetto dei vincoli tecnici, economici e sociali imposti dalla situazione.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Le scelte effettive o le decisioni selezionano alcuni fatti all'interno del fattibile. L'azione si colloca nell'interfaccia tra il fattibile e il fatto. Membrana vibrante e permeabile, filtro attivo e sottile, l'azione trasforma il fattibile in fatto, estende il dominio dell'effettivo e trasforma di riflesso quello del realizzabile.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ma un atto può anche avere ripercussioni su un'altra interfaccia, più a monte del flusso ontologico: quella che separa il possibile dal fattibile. Sono le condizioni tecniche, economiche e sociali a separare il semplicemente possibile dai vincoli della fattibilità. Chiameremo tecnico, nel senso più ampio del termine, ogni evento che abbia come effetto quello di spostare la frontiera tra il possibile e il fattibile. Il progetto dell'intelligenza collettiva valorizza la tecnica, non per cieca fascinazione, ma perché essa dischiude il campo dell'azione. I saperi pratici e i dispositivi tecnici sono doppiamente preziosi, in primo luogo come prodotti, cristallizzazione e memoria dell'attività umana, e poi come strumenti di crescita delle potenzialità di conoscere, sentire, agire e comunicare, come interfaccia tra il possibile e il fattibile. Sfortunatamente è anche possibile impiegarli con il risultato globale di una diminuzione di potenza e di una maggiore esclusione, anziché di un aumento della socialità. Imboccando questa via, si sprecano le qualità umane: quelle dei produttori perché si mette al servizio della distruzione un'intelligenza depositata nelle cose - e quelle delle vittime. Anche non sfruttare le tecniche disponibili rappresenta uno spreco: gli inventori avranno lavorato invano e i possibili beneficiari verranno privati di un'aumento delle qualità. In definitiva, è il grado di intelligenza collettiva all'opera in una situazione specifica a condizionare il valore umano delle tecniche. Tutto dipende dalla capacità collettiva di valorizzare le potenzialità proprie dei saperi pratici e dei dispositivi materiali ampliando la sfera del fattibile - nel senso di un arricchimento globale dell'umano.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Gli atti possono anche, per certi loro effetti, spostare un altro limite, un'altra interfaccia, quella che separa l'impossibile dal possibile, controbattendo che ciò che è impossibile lo è sempre stato e sempre lo sarà per definizione - altrimenti non si tratterebbe appunto di vera impossibilità. Pensiamo tuttavia a un astronomo aristotelico e razionalista del Medioevo. Per lui, la luna e la terra appartengono a sfere di esistenza assolutamente distinte. Secondo la sua scienza è certa l'impossibilità per un uomo o per un corpo umano vivente e mortale di camminare sulla luna (anche se si può immaginarlo nel contesto di una favola o di un racconto). Invece per la scienza galileiana, i mondi lunari e sublunari non sono più separati da una radicale differenza di natura. Un astronomo newtoniano dell'epoca classica sosterrebbe la possibilità per un uomo di camminare sulla luna (anche se non sa come questo possa essere reso fattibile). Nel XX secolo, la tecnica ha reso il possibile fattibile e l'azione della NASA ha reso il fattibile fatto. Ma lo spostamento iniziale, quello dall'impossibile al possibile, è stato un atto "scientifico" che ha interessato la sfera delle rappresentazioni valide e dei sistemi di spiegazione. Oggi sappiamo che è impossibile per un corpo fisico superare la velocità della luce. Sappiamo anche che in un sistema formale abbastanza potente da modellizzare l'aritmetica non si può dimostrarne al contempo la consistenza e la completezza con le sole risorse del sistema (teorema di Godel). Da un lato, con i teoremi di limitazione e le leggi fisiche la scienza costeggia l'impossibile. Dal lato della spiegazione e della descrizione dell'universo invece, in quanto sposta il limite tra noto e ignoto, in quanto mette in luce forme inedite del divenire, la scienza - qui intesa nel senso molto ampio di conoscenza consolidata - estende il possibile.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;L'importante è non confondere l'impossibile con l'inimmaginabile. Credo sinceramente che sia impossibile superare la velocità di trecentomila chilometri al secondo, tuttavia posso scrivere un racconto di fantascienza in cui questo impossibile sia qualcosa di normalissimo. L'inimmaginabile appartiene a un ordine diverso rispetto all'impossibile. Non posso sapere né dire niente su qualcosa che per me sia inimmaginabile. Non posso neppure individuarne i limiti. So solo che questi limiti esistono. Per esempio, il mondo contemporaneo con le sue automobili, i suoi aerei, le sue reti telefoniche, le sue televisioni, i suoi computer, la sua elettricità e le sue centrali nucleari, non solo con gli elementi della sua scienza e della sua tecnica, ma anche con i suoi costumi politici e religiosi, con le sue "mentalità", è propriamente inimmaginabile per un antico romano, o anche per un uomo del XVII secolo. Sono gli strumenti culturali nel loro insieme a spostare l'interfaccia tra l'immaginabile e l'inimmaginabile. Qui la cultura è concepita come un insieme di attrezzi a disposizione della nostra potenza mentale: la scienza, la tecnica, la nostra conoscenza dei fatti storici e sociali, la lingua, le parole e le immagini disponibili, le idee, gli schemi di pensiero, le strutture mentali, gli strumenti intellettuali apporteranno ciascuno il proprio contributo. In questa attrezzatura, gli strumenti di osservazione, di simulazione e di navigazione nella conoscenza ampliano enormemente il campo dell'immaginabile e, in questo senso, contribuiscono a migliorare le nostre scelte.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Infine, il pensiero modifica l'interfaccia tra l'immaginabile e l'immaginato. Il pensiero, questo produttore di immagini, segni ed entità mentali senza il quale nessuna opzione e nessuna libertà sarebbero possibili. Il pensiero amplia il campo dell'immaginato e moltiplica con ciò stesso tutti gli altri spazi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Impossibile, possibile, fattibile e fatto non si dispongono solo per gradi, secondo una scala ontologica lineare. Si organizzano anche secondo una interazione reciproca e trasversale che disegna una autentica spirale autopoietica dell'esistenza. Inimmaginabile, immaginabile e immaginato non costituiscono unicamente i tre gradini di una scala noetica, ma formano a loro volta una spirale dinamica dell'immaginazione. Ci rappresenteremo queste "spirali" come movimenti infiniti, compenetrazioni sempre più sottili dei processi in gioco. In questo schema la scienza, la tecnica, l'azione, la cultura e il pensiero non sono agenti sostanziali e ben identificati ma sfaccettature di atti e di eventi. Che cos'è un atto? Qualcosa che sposta una delle cinque frontiere. Se un atto sposta il limite tra possibile e impossibile, fa parte della "scienza". Se si ritiene che agisca sull'interfaccia tra possibile e fattibile, rientrerà nella "tecnica" ecc. A priori non si sa mai se un evento faccia capo alla "scienza", alla "tecnica", all"'azione", alla "cultura", al "pensiero" o a più d'una fra queste interfacce: bisogna prima considerare i limiti che sposta. Ogni volta che un'interfaccia viene modificata, le altre ne risentono. Le spirali dell'immaginazione e dell'esistenza si producono a vicenda e formano insieme la grande macchina che fa muovere il mondo umano. Una macchina in cui l'accrescimento dei possibili, del fattibile e dei fatti, dell'immaginazione collettiva e dei pensieri personali viene incessantemente rilanciato, una macchina anonima e singolare, fluttuante, senza infrastrutture, senza fondamento, senza basi causali definitive: l'emergenza e la turbolenza stessa della realtà umana.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Chiedere se il progetto dell'intelligenza collettiva sia "utopico" o "realistico" non ha dunque molto senso: è partito e noi non sappiamo ancora, all'interno del mutamento generale, quali limiti sposterà e fino a dove. La sua finalità ultima è quella di fare in modo di mettere, il più possibile, il governo della grande macchina ontologica e noetica nelle mani della specie umana costituitasi in "ipercorteccia". Come abbiamo visto, in questo libro non si tratta di descrivere minuziosamente una società perfetta e sottratta al divenire. L'intelligenza collettiva è un'utopia dell'instabile e del molteplice. Risponde a un'etica del meglio piuttosto che a una morale del bene. Statico, definitivo, fuori contesto, il bene si impone a priori, al di sopra delle situazioni, mentre il meglio (il meglio possibile) è in situazione, relativo, dinamico e provvisorio. Il bene è, non muta; il meglio è sempre differente. Il bene si oppone al male, lo esclude. Invece, il meglio "include" il male perché, essendo logicamente equivalente al male minore, si accontenta di minimizzarlo.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Proporre l'utopia dell'intelligenza collettiva significa reintrodurre il mito del progresso, dell'avanzata verso un avvenire sempre migliore? No, perché l'idea di un progresso lineare presuppone un controllo totale del contesto ambiente da parte del collettivo. Soprattutto essa ipotizza la permanenza e l'uniformità dei criteri di scelta. Infatti, la nozione di una progressione continua e monotona non è che una variante leggermente perfezionata della morale del bene. Coordinando le proprie intelligenze e le proprie immaginazioni, i membri dei collettivi intelligenti fanno crescere il meglio, inventano un meglio sempre nuovo e sempre vario. Il meglio si sposta continuamente non solo perché le situazioni "oggettive" evolvono, ma perché la conoscenza delle situazioni si affina o si ingarbuglia (cosa che costituisce ipso facto un cambiamento di situazione) e perché i criteri di scelta cambiano in funzione delle trasformazioni del contesto e dell'evoluzione dei progetti. Ogni nuova scelta viene fatta all'interno di un cammino originale e imprevedibile di apprendimento collettivo e di invenzione di sé.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Il progetto dell'intelligenza collettiva non rinvia la felicità a un altro tempo. Lontano da ogni idea di sacrificio, incita quotidianamente, in ogni situazione particolare, ad aumentare il grado di libertà degli individui e dei gruppi, a ingaggiare sfide in cui ci siano solo vincitori, a mettere in sinergia, trasversalmente, conoscenze e conoscenti. L'intelligenza collettiva non ha nemici. Essa non combatte i poteri, li diserta. Non persegue il dominio, ma mille germinazioni. Tende a far nascere la più grande varietà di esistenti. L'espansione delle potenzialità vitali e delle qualità d'essere rinvia al criterio ultimo - più generale, quasi ontologico - della scelta del meglio: l'allontanamento della distruzione, il tropismo nei confronti dell'esistenza, un'esistenza che includa non solo i fatti, ma tutto ciò che si tratteggia nell'immaginabile, nell'immaginato, nel possibile e nel fattibile.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Con il progetto dell'intelligenza collettiva, noi portiamo avanti l'opera di emancipazione della filosofia dei lumi. E tuttavia, ancora una volta, non possiamo più perseguire la finzione di un progresso lineare, automatico e garantito. In questa fine di XX secolo, c'è una forte disillusione nei confronti della "modernità". Arcaismi e barbarie sono lì, pronti a risorgere, ancora più arcaici e barbari di quanto non siano mai stati. Tutto coesiste: la mondializzazione (che ormai rende ogni guerra una guerra civile) e i fanatismi nazionali; le mafie trionfanti e i progressi della bioetica; il continente culturale trasversale della gioventù urbana, con i suoi simboli e le sue musiche, e il lavoro minorile; la carestia e le mega macchine mondiali di produzione di sogni delle industrie del divertimento interattivo; le multinazionali dell'alta tecnologia e la mancanza d'acqua; il cyberspazio e l'analfabetismo... Il tempo non è lineare, è multiplo, a spirale, a vortici. Forse non siamo postmoderni, forse viviamo non dopo, ma prima della storia, in una fase in cui tutte le durate sono ancora mescolate, momento fantastico, fonte di una storia a venire che non ha ancora iniziato scorrere. Vivremmo in un "tempo delle origini", nell'arché medesimo, all'interno del tempo del mito, nella grande epoca delle metamorfosi e degli animali che parlano. Ritmi, spazi, identità, possibili sono altrettanti segni sui dadi d'avorio lanciati dal tempo. Non Cronos, il terribile dio che divora i suoi figli, il castratore del padre, il dio della successione lineare, ma aion, il tempo dei tempi, l'eternità, l'innocenza. Il tempo è un bambino che gioca a dadi. Che umanità ne uscirà? Un mondo di guerra civile planetaria si offre ai nostri occhi, dominato dalle reti del crimine e dalle élites della high tech, un mondo che condanna la maggior parte degli uomini a una miseria senza speranza. Con il progetto dell'intelligenza collettiva vogliamo aprire un'altra via.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Di nuovo, è possibile? Si può sfuggire alla lotta per il potere, ai tentativi di dominio, alla guerra? Polemos non è forse il padre e il re di tutte le cose? Questa sentenza di Eraclito il greco, io la rifiuto; e ricorro in appello davanti al giudice degli inferi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Molti secoli prima del suo declino, in epoca classica, la Grecia splendente delle città, l'antico mondo ellenico era dominato dalla civiltà micenea. Nell'Iliade, è il re di Micene, Agamennone, a guidare la spedizione degli achei contro Troia. Oggi, quando il viaggiatore si trova di *onte alle rovine dell'antica fortezza portate alla luce dagli archeologi, scopre mura dello spessore di diversi metri, fatte di blocchi enormi, ciclopici. In quella civiltà guerriera, tutto lo sforzo degli uomini, tutto l'accumulo materiale servivano a separare l'interno dall'esterno.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Molto diverso dalla fortezza di Micene, e ben più antico, il palazzo di Cnosso fu per sette secoli il principale centro di diffusione della civiltà minoica. Il palazzo cretese è sprovvisto di fortificazioni. La pacifica cultura minoica ha concentrato i propri sforzi sulla complessità dell'architettura, sulla decorazione delle sale, sulla bellezza e l'ingegnosità dei collegamenti interni (rete fognaria, dell'acqua potabile ecc.). Tutta l'energia investita a Micene nella mole delle mura difensive venne impiegata a Cnosso per affinare lo stile di vita, per complicare la pianta del palazzo, per far proliferare tutta una ricercatezza di dettagli architettonici: scale, corti, colonne, statue, piani, terrazze, anticamere, saloni di rappresentanza, piccole stanze segrete, camere del tesoro, corridoi, gradini, vicoli ciechi... Il palazzo di Cnosso è infinitamente complesso, ma aperto sul cielo e il sole grazie alle sue corti e ai suoi cavedi, affacciato sul mondo e sulla città grazie alle sue porte e finestre. E collegato da strade lastricate agli altri palazzi delle grandi città cretesi. E poiché non vivevano in una civiltà guerriera, ma avevano orientato il proprio spirito verso problemi di natura diversa da quelli della difesa, dell'attacco, dei rapporti di forza e di dominio, i minoici, mentre si aprivano alle arti e al commercio con altre società, hanno piegato e ripiegato il loro mondo su se stesso, facendo fiorire la favolosa ricchezza estetica che precede e forse influenza il "miracolo greco". Non avendo eretto mura difensive, i minoici hanno inventato il labirinto, ovvero la complessità culturale, I'intelligenza collettiva proiettata nello spazio architettonico.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Chi è dunque il Minotauro? E la bestia spaventosa che divorava i giovani ateniesi nelle profondità del suo antro oscuro? Questa versione del Minotauro è quella dei greci. Ma i greci guerrieri, polemici, figli di Micene e lettori dell'Iliade, non potevano comprendere Cnosso, l'enigma di una civiltà irenica. Il Minotauro, uomo-toro, non è altro che l'acrobata minoico che esegue sul toro sacro pericolosi salti rituali. Il Minotauro, l'ibrido uomo-toro, sta al centro del labirinto, ma si tratta della corte centrale del palazzo di Cnosso. Si esibisce all'aperto, leggero, aggraziato, su uno spiazzo inondato di luce.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I minoici non furono vinti in guerra. La loro cultura scomparve a causa di una serie di catastrofi naturali e di diaspore che li portarono lontano dall'isola. Nessun resto umano è stato ritrovato nelle rovine del palazzo incendiato. I greci si insediarono a Creta solo dopo il declino della sua civiltà originaria.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Teseo che uccide il Minotauro sta a indicare i micenei che occultano la civiltà minoica, una civiltà artistica, tecnica, ma senza armi e senza schiavitù. I greci guerrieri, polemici, hanno occupato l'irenica Creta. Sotto il conflitto, la pace. I greci hanno rimosso Minosse, lo hanno ricacciato nelle profondità, nel punto più basso, avendone fatto il giudice degli inferi. E sotto il trasparente travestimento di Zeus, è proprio il toro minoico a trasportare Europa.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Il progetto dell'intelligenza collettiva presuppone l'abbandono della prospettiva del potere. Intende aprire il vuoto centrale, il cavedio di luce che permette il gioco con l'alterità, la concezione di utopie e la complessità labirintica. Ora il palazzo di luce, labirinto bianco, traccia architettonica di una gioia di vivere, di una bellezza, di una leggerezza sovrane, diventa agli occhi dell'attitudine guerriera, polemica, che non sa far altro che ritrovare se stessa ovunque, il labirinto nero, la trappola mortale abitata da un mostro divoratore di uomini. La leggenda del labirinto manifesta l'incapacità di trovare una via d'uscita pacifica. Sia rispetto al lontano passato cretese sia nell'orizzonte dell'opaco futuro del pianeta, la cultura della potenza e della pace sembra indecifrabile. Il lineare B, scrittura dei micenei di Creta, è stato decodificato. Ma non si è ancora trovata la chiave del lineare A, grafia dei minoici prima della conquista micenea. L'enigma della pace è ancora inaccessibile. Decifriamo allora il lineare A o piuttosto inventiamo l'ideografia dinamica, la scrittura dell'avvenire, la lingua nuova (surlangue) dei collettivi intelligenti. Invece di rafforzare i baluardi del potere, raffiniamo l'architettura del cyberspazio, ultimo labirinto. Su ogni circuito integrato, su ogni chip elettronico, si vede senza saperla leggere la cifra segreta, l'emblema complesso dell'intelligenza collettiva, il messaggio irenico disseminato in ogni direzione.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pierre Lévy&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;è nato nel 1956 a Tunisi. Dopo aver intrapreso studi di storia e poi di storia delle scienze, segue alla Sorbona i corsi di Michel Serres e di Castoriadis, con cui sostiene una tesi sull'idea di libertà.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Con il gruppo riunito attorno a Michel Serres, partecipa alla redazione di Eléments d'histoire des sciences (1989), di cui scrive la parte sull'invenzione del computer. Pubblica poi una prima opera La Machine univers (1987) sulle implicazioni culturali dell'informatizzazione e le sue radici nella storia dell'Occidente.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Il secondo libro, Le tecnologie dell'intelligenza (Synergon, Bologna 1992), è il frutto dell'esperienza di due anni in Canada, dove aveva lavorato come professore presso il dipartimento di comunicazione dell'università del Quebec a Montreal, e dove ha potuto approfondire le proprie conoscenze nel campo delle scienze cognitive e scoprire il mondo degli ipertesti. Nel libro tenta di dare consistenza filosofica al concetto di ipertesto e stende il programma di una "ecologia cognitiva", in polemica con l'approccio strutturalista e chomskiano.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tornato in Europa concepisce una forma di scrittura per immagini, interattiva e fruibile al computer. Quale tipo di scrittura potremmo inventare, disponendo di supporti dinamici e interattivi, piuttosto che di un supporto fisso? Verosimilmente una scrittura che non annoti suoni, come l'alfabeto, ma modelli mentali. Il suo successivo libro, L'idéographie dynamique (1991), elabora il fondamento teorico per un tale sistema di segni, in maniera tale da rendere sistematico l'uso delle simulazioni grafiche interattive, sia per la ricerca scientifica sia per i videogiochi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dal 1990 intraprende, con l'amico e ispiratore Michel Authier, una serie di ricerche e riflessioni sulle nuove forme di accesso al sapere fomite dagli strumenti informatici. Insieme approdano al concetto di "cosmopedia", un'enciclopedia sotto forma di ambiente virtuale, che si riorganizza e si arricchisce automaticamente in base alle esplorazioni e alle domande di coloro che vi si addentrano. Contribuisce all'invenzione di una applicazione particolare della cosmopedia: il sistema "degli alberi delle conoscenze". Si tratta di un sistema aperto di comunicazione tra individui, formatori e datori di lavoro, che consente di riconoscere la diversità di competenze delle persone, di organizzare formazione e apprendimento e di rendere visibile, grazie a una forma di rappresentazione dinamica, lo "spazio del sapere&gt;&gt; dei gruppi umani (scuole, imprese, bacini d'impiego). Tale progetto è descritto nell'opera Les arbres de connaissances (1992). Sempre con l'amico Michel Authier fonda la società Trivium che sviluppa e commercializza il programma e il metodo degli alberi della conoscenza.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sempre nel 1992 viene pubblicato De la programmation considérée comme un des beaux-arts in cui si analizzano, all'interno di quattro casi concreti, gli atti cognitivi e sociali realizzati dai programmatori, mettendone in risalto gli aspetti più creativi e immaginativi.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dal 1993 Pierre Lévy insegna presso il dipartimento "Hypermédia" dell'università di Parigi-VIII a Saint-Denis.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-111818526481984871?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/111818526481984871/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=111818526481984871' title='1 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111818526481984871'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111818526481984871'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/06/pierre-lvy.html' title='Pierre Lévy'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>1</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-111755386093599585</id><published>2005-05-31T08:36:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-05-31T08:37:40.943-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Cyrano de Bergerac</title><content type='html'>Savinien Cyrano de Bergerac&lt;br /&gt;Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Savinien Cyrano de BergeracSavinien Cyrano de Bergerac (Parigi, 6 marzo 1619 - Sannois, 28 luglio 1655) fu un poeta, letterato e libero pensatore del Seicento francese. La sua figura ha ispirato la celebre opera teatrale "Cyrano de Bergerac" di Edmond Rostand del 1897. Grazie ai suoi romanzi fantastici è oggi considerato uno dei precursori della letteratura fantascientifica.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Indice [mostranascondi]  &lt;br /&gt;1 Biografia&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2 Le Lettere&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3 I romanzi fantastici&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;3.1 L'altro mondo o Gli stati e gli imperi della luna&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;4 Opere principali&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;5 Frasi celebri&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;6 Il Premio Cyrano&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;7 Risorse in rete&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;8 Voci correlate&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Biografia&lt;br /&gt;Nato a Parigi nel 1619, dotato di un temperamento bizzarro e fantasioso, il suo nome completo era Savinien de Cyrano de Bergerac (Cyrano era in realtà il cognome e non il nome). Discendeva da un'antica famiglia parigina, passò la sua infanzia a Saint-Forget (oggi Yvelines) e fu a Parigi che compì i suoi studi e visse. Fu prima nell'esercito, dove si rese celebre per la spavalderia e i numerosi duelli. Si dedicò quindi alla letteratura, frequentando l'ambiente parigino dei libertini. Morì a soli 34 anni, nel 1655, per le gravi ferite riportate non durante un duello bensì dalla caduta di una trave.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;De Cyrano fu uno dei più estrosi scrittori del Seicento francese, una personalità veramente eclettica: fu romanziere, drammaturgo, autore satirico, epistolografo, prima di morire scrisse persino i primi capitoli di un Trattato di fisica. Fu un libertino, quando ancora quel termine stava piuttosto ad indicare un'avanguardia culturale, una nuova filosofia di vita.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;La sua è stata una figura dibattuta e assai controversa: è stato considerato alternativamente un martire del libero pensiero (Paul Lacroix), uno scienziato incompreso (Pierre Juppont, "L'oeuvre scientifique de Savinien de Cyrano dit: Cyrano de Bergerac", 1907), un libertino senz’arte ne parte (Lechevre), un razionalista militante (Weber) e perfino un alchimista e un iniziato (Eugène Canseliet).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Le Lettere&lt;br /&gt;Le sue Lettere (Lettres, 1654), come era consuetudine del tempo, prescindono da riferimenti personali e biografici e costituiscono uno degli esempi più notevoli di prosa barocchista francese:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Signora mia, &lt;br /&gt;non mi lamento solo del male che i vostri begli occhi hanno avuto la bontà di farmi; mi lamento ancor più della crudele sofferenza che provo a non vederli. &lt;br /&gt;Avete lasciato nel mio cuore, quando me ne sono andato, un'idea arrogante che, col pretesto d'esser nata da voi, si vanta d'aver potere di vita o di morte su di me. &lt;br /&gt;[modifica]&lt;br /&gt;I romanzi fantastici&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Illustrazione per uno dei romanzi fantasticiLe opere più importanti di Cyrano de Bergerac sono considerati i suoi romanzi fantastici, ritenuti precursori dell'odierna fantascienza: L'altro mondo o Gli stati e gli imperi della luna (L'autre monde ou Les ètats et empires de la lune, pubblicato postumo nel 1657), probabilmente il suo capolavoro, e Gli stati e imperi del sole (Les ètats et empires du soleil, pubblicato postumo nel 1662). Si tratta di racconti fantastici, estremamente vivaci. Il racconto, nella più tipica e schietta prosa barocchista, è quello di un viaggio meraviglioso, realistico e poetico, nei paesi della Luna e del Sole. È un pretesto per l'esposizione di ardite teorie filosofiche, scientifiche e religiose: il movimento della terra, l'eternità e l'infinità dei mondi, la costituzione atomica dei corpi, i principi fisici dell'aerostato ecc.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Le conoscenze di alchimista (abilmente celate nei suoi romanzi) furono assai stimate da importanti studiosi dell’Ermetismo quali Fulcanelli e Eugène Canseliet.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;L'altro mondo o Gli stati e gli imperi della luna&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Manoscritto originale de L'altro mondo (clic per ingrandire)Rientrato in casa dopo una passeggiata al chiaro di luna in compagnia di amici, l'autore si mette intorno al corpo una cintura fatta di ampolle piene d'acqua di rugiada, la quale evaporando attratta dal sole lo solleva fino alla Luna. Sulla Luna Cyrano rimarrà poco, poiché gli abitanti lo scambiano per uno struzzo e lo mettono in un'uccelliera, e molti gli sono avversi; ha però modo di conoscere quello strano paese e di ascoltare qualcuno che glielo descrive e glielo spiega: sulla Luna un solo colpo di archibugio fa cadere un intero stormo di allodole bell'e arrostite; i versi delle poesie valgono come moneta per pagare gli osti; non c'è bisogno di orologi: tutti gli abitanti hanno una larga dentatura e un lungo naso, così quando vogliono sapere l'ora aprono la bocca ed espongono al sole il naso, il quale fa ombra sui denti come sul quadrante di una meridiana.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Opere principali&lt;br /&gt;Il pedante gabbato (Le pédant joué, 1654, commedia in prosa) &lt;br /&gt;La morte di Agrippine (La mort d'Agrippine, 1654, tragedia) &lt;br /&gt;Trattato di fisica (Traité de physique, saggio) &lt;br /&gt;Lettere (Lettres, 1654, epistolario) &lt;br /&gt;L'altro mondo o Gli stati e gli imperi della luna (L'autre monde ou Les états et empires de la lune, 1657, romanzo fantastico) &lt;br /&gt;Gli stati e imperi del sole (Les états et empires du soleil, 1662, romanzo fantastico) &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Frasi celebri&lt;br /&gt;Un bacio ... un apostrofo rosa fra le parole "t'amo". &lt;br /&gt;E che cos'è un bacio? ... Un segreto detto sulla bocca, un istante di infinito che ha il fruscio di un'ape tra le piante ...&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-111755386093599585?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/111755386093599585/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=111755386093599585' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111755386093599585'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111755386093599585'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/05/cyrano-de-bergerac.html' title='Cyrano de Bergerac'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-111355736526790762</id><published>2005-04-15T02:19:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-04-15T02:29:25.266-07:00</updated><title type='text'>NATURAL BEAUTY</title><content type='html'>"Pomade - a hair preparation popular in the 17th and 18th centuries was name after the apple which is pomata in Italian".  From Natural Beauty by Aldo Facetti&lt;br /&gt;This is the first book on natural remedies i ever bought, and it is amazing. the book contains beautiful photography throughout, and provides hundreds of useful and easy recipes for beauty products. it has saved me money, and provided me with a fun hobby. i highly recommend it .&lt;br /&gt;NATURAL BEAUTY (Paperback)&lt;br /&gt;by Aldo Facetti&lt;br /&gt;Belle per natura: Ricette e consigli per preparare cosmetici naturali &lt;br /&gt;by Aldo Facetti &lt;br /&gt;The ingredients found in nature--herbs, oils, seeds, flowers, and resin--have been used for centuries to beautify hair and skin. Now, these traditional treatments have been adapted for the nineties, allowing anyone to create natural products that are nontoxic, hypoallergenic, fresh, and tailored to individual needs.&lt;br /&gt;Ricette naturali per il proprio benessere (capelli, viso e corpo). Con un glossario abbastanza completo e una parte introduttiva sugli ingredienti utilizzati nel volume.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-111355736526790762?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/111355736526790762/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=111355736526790762' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111355736526790762'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111355736526790762'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/04/natural-beauty.html' title='NATURAL BEAUTY'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-111355673972805927</id><published>2005-04-15T02:16:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-04-15T02:18:59.730-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Piero Menichetti - Design</title><content type='html'>I primi anni '90 accolgono in catalogo Decò di Piero Menichetti, Lift di Giancarlo Bartoli e Sfera. Nel '93 inizia la collaborazione con Carlo Urbinati ed ecco Respiro, un successo firmato con Claudio Papa che negli anni non ha subito battute d'arresto. Nasce nel maggio '94 la serie Cinquecento una collezione ampia, articolata, che registra tuttora record di consenso e di vendite. Gli anni '90 sono pieni di novità, in rapida successione arrivano in catalogo Punto, quindi Camelot e Tiramolla, entrambi a firma di Urbinati e Papa. Roberto Lazzaroni disegna X Type e Star Type. Nasce Puzzle, un sistema componibile integrato di mobili ed accessori, firmato da Bertocci &amp; Finocchi Architetti Associati. Successivamente entrano in produzione Coro e Tolomeo di Carlo Urbinati, Le Nuvole di Massimo Sacconi, Più di Giancarlo Bartoli e infine Illavabo di Urbinati &amp; Papa. Entrano in scena i nuovi lavabi in vetro, Airone all'inizio, seguito da quelli della serie Più. Prodotti di design e di immagine, destinati a fasce di gusto diverse, realizzati con la consueta sapienza produttiva che caratterizza i prodotti Bertocci. Nell'intento di coordinare e ottimizzare l'impegno produttivo, Bertocci affronta con decisione la relazione con il trade e la comunicazione al pubblico finale. Pubblicità e relazioni pubbliche, ufficio stampa, iniziative sul punto vendita, strumenti di supporto alla vendita, incontri con gli agenti sono altrettante tessere di un mosaico articolato di impegno e determinazione.&lt;br /&gt; lo Scopino A/21 firmato dallo Studio Menichetti. &lt;br /&gt; Dal '75 si rinnovano i cataloghi e l'immagine aziendale, viene definito il nuovo marchio, si affrontano i mercati esteri, si partecipa a fiere di settore come il Cersaie, si sperimentano nuove tecnologie e si introducono collezioni rivoluzionarie e colorate. Lacche, elementi modulari, plexiglass, curve fluide, elementi funzionali, illuminazioni mirate, tutto concorre alla creazione di una stanza da bagno di diversa concezione che raccoglie in pieno l'energia, gli stimoli e la voglia di rinnovamento che scuote tutta l'Europa e il resto del mondo. Collezioni come la 1000 in acciaio inox o la 2000, in alluminio lavorato al tornio ad imitazione del legno laccato che spopola sul mercato, rappresentano un successo immediato in Italia e in Francia. Anche Segno di Piero Menichetti, declinata in tutti i colori dell' arcobaleno, come Corrimano di Giancarlo Bartoli arrivata in catalogo nel '79 hanno successo. Corrimano è una collezione di elementi modulari, una novità assoluta, un prodotto capace di costruire un percorso attrezzato, colorato, dinamico, funzionale e in linea con le richieste del mercato più evoluto ed esigente. Un successo che continua nel tempo e che non ha visto battute d'arresto.&lt;br /&gt;http://www.bertocci.it/italiano/azienda/storia.htm&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-111355673972805927?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/111355673972805927/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=111355673972805927' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111355673972805927'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111355673972805927'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/04/piero-menichetti-design.html' title='Piero Menichetti - Design'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-111341296884320663</id><published>2005-04-13T10:22:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-04-13T10:22:48.846-07:00</updated><title type='text'>le bagonghe</title><content type='html'>Le Donne Sono &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; pompon di pompompere... cancan di cangaceire...)&lt;br /&gt;Io ne ho avuta&lt;br /&gt;una ch'era un guaio pi delle cambiali (Brasil... la la la...)&lt;br /&gt;e piangeva alle feste e rideva ai funerali (fusil...)&lt;br /&gt;marinai (maliarde son...)&lt;br /&gt;questi uomini (le gattoparde...)&lt;br /&gt;e le femmine sono lontani (occhi di spia...)&lt;br /&gt;oceani... (negri e zumbon nella malia della passion...)&lt;br /&gt;Io con una&lt;br /&gt;mi ricordo il primo bacio che le detti (miomao...)&lt;br /&gt;attento a dove il naso va&lt;br /&gt;e lei rimase tutto il tempo a denti stretti (cacao...)&lt;br /&gt;i cow boys&lt;br /&gt;che sparano (l�nell'alcova...)&lt;br /&gt;tappi e stesse cazzate e all'occhiello (quanti languor...)&lt;br /&gt;un sedano... (su quel visin finto candor di porcellin...)&lt;br /&gt;Le donne sono qualche cosa&lt;br /&gt;di allegro e 1930&lt;br /&gt;voci a colori pelle di mimosa&lt;br /&gt;ombrosit�di ascelle&lt;br /&gt;cuori nella tormenta...&lt;br /&gt;le donne sgambano odorose&lt;br /&gt;ed hanno sogni dentro un frullatore&lt;br /&gt;insolite insolute insalate capricciose&lt;br /&gt;si tolgono i peccati con lo smacchiatore...&lt;br /&gt;Io di un'altra&lt;br /&gt;che fu al buio gridolini e friggi friggi (che pall...)&lt;br /&gt;quando accesi l'abat-jour&lt;br /&gt;le scoprii l'orsetto con i baffi grigi (oval...)&lt;br /&gt;naufraghi (e cellophan...)&lt;br /&gt;su un tavolo (lucido e teso...)&lt;br /&gt;che galleggia nel vino uomo in mare (stringono al sen...)&lt;br /&gt;salvatelo... (quel fior del mal il cui velen ci fu fatal...)&lt;br /&gt;Le donne sono streghe e fate&lt;br /&gt;silenzio di occhi vento di ginestra&lt;br /&gt;tutte le stesse gambe accavallate&lt;br /&gt;bambine di cortile&lt;br /&gt;direttrici d'orchestra...&lt;br /&gt;le donne fanno l'improvviso&lt;br /&gt;e uomo tu non potrai mai sapermi&lt;br /&gt;e sono Eve e uve e male e mele in Paradiso&lt;br /&gt;e noi chi siamo noi&lt;br /&gt;i serpenti o i vermi... (i vermi...)&lt;br /&gt;Le pattinatrici girano nella TV&lt;br /&gt;tagliando un'aria di ghiaccio&lt;br /&gt;saltano su appese a un braccio&lt;br /&gt;e piccoli studiati gesti&lt;br /&gt;e piroette nei costumi celesti&lt;br /&gt;e le melette nelle guance&lt;br /&gt;prendono fiato&lt;br /&gt;e prenderanno un d�marito&lt;br /&gt;e con la stessa grazia&lt;br /&gt;ripiegheranno le ali gi...&lt;br /&gt;(o buie baiadere... o belle caballere...)&lt;br /&gt;O belle o brutte&lt;br /&gt;le donne sono proprio tante&lt;br /&gt;e se si potesse farne una sola (o quante figlie madama dor�..)&lt;br /&gt;di tutte&lt;br /&gt;ma anche quella sola no (non c'�..)&lt;br /&gt;e sai che c'�(che c'�..)&lt;br /&gt;che beviamo cantiamo saltiamo...&lt;br /&gt;Alla faccia&lt;br /&gt;alla faccia delle loro belle facce...&lt;br /&gt;alla faccia&lt;br /&gt;alla faccia delle loro belle facce...&lt;br /&gt;alla faccia loro&lt;br /&gt;alla faccia delle loro belle facce...&lt;br /&gt;Bimbe solinghe strambe meringhe&lt;br /&gt;bionde rambe stanghe fiamminghe&lt;br /&gt;gambe ambre penombre lusinghe&lt;br /&gt;lingue iraconde lunghe gioconde&lt;br /&gt;limbi sponde onde profonde&lt;br /&gt;linde fronde lavande ghirlande&lt;br /&gt;bande carambe trombe marimbe&lt;br /&gt;rumbe sambe mambi milonghe&lt;br /&gt;conghe tumbe birimbe birambe&lt;br /&gt;bambi colombe sgombri anaconde&lt;br /&gt;aringhe oranghe dumbe bagonghe&lt;br /&gt;grembi lombi rotonde culandre&lt;br /&gt;ghiande caliende bombe ecatombe&lt;br /&gt;lande tundre giungle feconde&lt;br /&gt;ombre zombi calimbe macumbe&lt;br /&gt;fionde pitonghe sghembe malandre&lt;br /&gt;blande jumbe simbe mocambe&lt;br /&gt;strombe rande nefande valanghe&lt;br /&gt;monde mutande bumbe goganghe&lt;br /&gt;umbre malombre langhe strapiombe&lt;br /&gt;coimbre mustanghe burunde malinde...&lt;br /&gt;danga que romba la coiomba...&lt;br /&gt;aridanga que romba la coiomba..&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-111341296884320663?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/111341296884320663/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=111341296884320663' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111341296884320663'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111341296884320663'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/04/le-bagonghe.html' title='le bagonghe'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-111341288276502986</id><published>2005-04-13T10:19:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-04-13T10:21:22.773-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Gandhi</title><content type='html'>La vita&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Il nome GANDHI significa "droghiere" perché la sua famiglia dovette esercitare per un breve periodo del piccolo commercio di spezie. Nelle ultime generazioni tale famiglia ricoprì alcune cariche importanti nelle corti del kathiawar. Il padre Mohandas Kaba Gandhi era stato il primo ministro del principe rajkot. I Gandhi erano di religione vaishnava, appartenevano cioè ad una setta hindù con particolare devozione per vishnù. &lt;br /&gt; Mohandas karamchad Gandhi tra i dieci e i diciassette anni frequentò la "high school" del kathiawar. Compiuti tredici anni, dopo due precedenti fidanzamenti sfumati per la morte precoce delle fanciulle prescelte dai suoi genitori, e da lui neppur conosciute, venne sposato ad una sua coetanea. All'età di trentasette anni, d'accordo con la moglie, decise di prendere il voto di castità, andando contro ai principi della sua religione. Ebbe un periodo di crisi , in cui egli credette di esser ateo, che si risolse con una confessione scritta al padre. Terminata la "High school" andò al college, dove seguì alcuni corsi, ma senza profitto. Così il 4 Settembre 1888 Gandhi si imbarcò a Bombay per raggiungere Londra, dove cerca di inserirsi nella società, diventando un gentleman, purtroppo senza i risultati che si era preposto. Perso l'interesse per la società londinese, egli si dedica alla lettura di vari testi, anche di altre religioni, dai quali capisce che la rinuncia è la forma più alta di religiosità che un uomo possa esprimere. I tre anni trascorsi a Londra da Gandhi furono per lui di lenta ed inconscia maturazione. Ottenuta l'abilitazione alla professione legale, scopo della sua vita a Londra, nel 1891 ritorna in India. A Bombay lo attendono cattive nuove, la madre è morta da qualche mese, e la professione che lui esercita non rende abbastanza per sdebitarsi con i fratelli che avevano sostenuto le spese per i suoi studi. Spinto dalle suddette ragioni, decise di partire per il Sud Africa per sbrigare un complicato affare legale per conto di una casa di commercio indiana, in modo da estinguere una buona parte del debito contratto con i fratelli. Arrivato in Sud Africa ebbe subito le prime esperienze personali, sul treno che doveva portarlo a destinazione, benché munito di biglietto, venne allontanato dallo compartimento di prima classe perché riservato ai bianchi. A Johannesburg per colpa della sua razza non trova albergo. Queste umiliazioni da lui subite non sono dirette soltanto a lui ma a tutta la sua razza. Spinto da un forte orgoglio convoca una riunione con la colonia indiana d'Africa, dove per far sì che tale gente venga accettata dalla collettività, esorta i commercianti ad essere il più onesti possibile, ad avere più cura della pulizia personale e a dimenticare le differenze di casta.&lt;br /&gt; Si offre per impartire lezioni di inglese gratuitamente, in modo da istruire la gente che non lo sapesse, fonte di imbrogli e vari raggiri. Successivamente prende contatto con le autorità ferroviarie con le quali raggiunge un patto per cui gli indiani, ben vestiti ed ordinati, potranno usufruire del servizio ferroviario di prima o seconda classe. Dopo un anno di permanenza in Sud Africa, ed ormai risolta la questione legale per cui vi si era recato egli decide di reimbarcarsi per tornare in India, ma la gente che aveva conosciuto lo esorta a restare ancora per almeno un mese in modo da far da guida per gli analfabeti di colore; egli accetta pur non sapendo che quel mese diventeranno poi vent'anni.&lt;br /&gt; Nel maggio 1894 fonda il "Natal indian congress" una associazione per la difesa degli interessi indiani nell'unione sudafricana. Nel 1896 torna in India per cercare appoggi alle sue teorie.&lt;br /&gt; Al suo ritorno in Sudafrica viene aggredito e malmenato e sfugge a stento al linciaggio. Durante la guerra boera organizza un corpo volontario per assistere i feriti; finita la guerra scoppia a Johannesburg una epidemia di peste ed egli si prodiga per assistere i colpiti, esponendo con gioia la vita per i suoi persecutori. Nel 1904 sull'esempio di Tolstoi fonda a Phoenix, nei pressi di Durban, una colonia agricola, dove vi trasferisce la tipografia del giornale "Indian Opinion" fondato sempre nello stesso anno, in essa Gandhi riserva per sé i lavori più umili e faticosi. In questa colonia egli divide il terreno in appezzamenti di poco più di un ettaro, e vi insedia i suoi compagni di lotta; la regola della comunità è che ognuno deve guadagnarsi la vita con il lavoro dei campi. Durante la guerra degli zulù, scoppiata in quel periodo, e dove Gandhi si presenta con un corpo di ambulanza volontario che cura, e soccorre bianchi e neri, compie su di sé esperimenti di una pratica che diverrà poi familiare e cara: il digiuno, come mezzo di purificazione e di autodominio. Comincia da qui la satyagraha, ovvero la forza della verità, che diverrà l'arma dei deboli; basato su idee che Gandhi enunciò in un solenne comizio tenuto il 1° Settembre 1906. Nell'agosto dello stesso anno il governo obbligò tutti gli asiatici a munirsi di scheda di identità, a fornire le impronte digitali e a sottostare ad altre umilianti misure di polizia che li ponevano a livello di comuni criminali. Gandhi consigliò ai satyagrahi di rifiutare di farsi schedare, se multati, non dovevano pagare l'ammenda, se processati dovevano deliberatamente dichiarare di aver violato le leggi ed andare in carcere senza opporre resistenza. &lt;br /&gt; Facendo così in breve le prigioni del Transvaal furono piene. Nel 1907 fu arrestato anche Gandhi, che ricevette l'intimazione di lasciare il paese entro 48 ore; avendo disobbedito fu processato e chiese al giudice di accusarlo in modo tale da avere una pena superiore ai suoi compagni. Nel 1914 finalmente il satyagraha prevalse sulla forza delle armi e delle leggi. Gandhi poté ritornare finalmente nella sua patria che ormai gli era divenuta straniera; ma prima volle trascorrere qualche settimana in Inghilterra la quale aveva appena dichiarato guerra alla Germania. Anche qui Gandhi non perde l'occasione per mettere in pratica le sue teorie, ed organizza subito un corpo di volontari indiani residenti in Inghilterra per curare gli inglesi feriti. La fatica ed il freddo lo fanno ammalare di pleurite così, avendo bisogno di un clima caldo come quello dell'India per curarsi, il 9 gennaio 1915 Gandhi sbarca a Bombay. Anche qui le occasioni per manifestare le idee della non violenza e della disobbedienza civile non mancarono affatto, infatti il 30 marzo 1919 ha inizio, a Delhi, la prima grande campagna di satyaghara su scala nazionale per protestare contro le misure restrittive che gli inglesi imponevano sulla libertà personale degli indiani, e che intendevano mantenere anche dopo la guerra.Gli aderenti furono invitati a firmare una formale dichiarazione redatta dallo stesso Gandhi, in cui si impegnavano a "disobbidire" nel caso in cui queste leggi venissero applicate. Poichè Gandhi proclamò il satyagraha un processo di auto purificazione sacra si decise disospendere il lavoro in tutta l'India per un giorno dedicando tale giornata al digiuno e alla preghiera. Tale processo non ottenne i risultati che ci si aspettava, anzi ebbero l'effetto contrario, così con un atto di grande coraggio il 18 aprile, Gandhi, non curante delle proteste degli estremisti, ordina la sospensione del movimento. Successivamente Gandhi assume la direzione di un settimanale in lingua inglese"YOUNG INDIA" e di un mensile in gujerati "NAVAJIVAN" per diffondere le sue idee. Nel novembre 1921 Gandhi viene condannato a trascorrere 2 anni di carcere per avere ripreso i moti della non violenza contro il governo inglese.Quando venne rilasciato la situazione politica era profondamente mutata, e il movimento di non collaborazione aveva perduto ogni vigore.Gandhi propose una nuova campagna di disobbedienza civile basata sulla legge del monopolio del sale che incideva negativamente sopratutto sui poveri. La mattina del 12 marzo 1930 seguito da degli studenti si diresse, a piedi, verso la costa per fabbricare qualche grammo di sale in spregio al monopolio. &lt;br /&gt; Per ogni villaggio in cui egli passava si aggiungeva sempre più gente, per lo più contadini. Il 5 aprile Gandhi raggiunse il mare a Danni dove in mezzo ad una folla che lo acclamava raccolse qualche grammo di sale; da qui iniziarono i moti del sale: i contadini non pagarono più l'imposta terriera; il boicottaggio dei tessuti stranieri divenne generale: i funzionari legislativi furono colpiti da ostracismo. I negozianti si rifiutavano di vendere i loro generi più necessari. I tribunali divennero deserti. Gli inglesi cercarono dapprima di reagire facendo caricare i dimostranti dalla polizia e arrestare i violati della legge. Gandhi fù arrestato e la direzione della campagna fù assunta dalla moglie, ma venne arrestata anch'essa; succedettero a quest'ultima molti altri capi ma vennero tutti arrestati ed in poco tempo le prigioni furono di nuovo piene. Il 25 gennaio 1931 Gandhi ed altri membri dell'esecutivo del congresso vennero liberati senza condizioni; e al termine di una serie di colloqui tra il Viceré e Gandhi, nel febbraio-marzo 1931 fu raggiunto un accordo definito "patto Irwin-Gandhi" per cui il Governo britannico modificava le leggi sul monopolio del sale, liberava i detenuti politici e revocava le ordinanze speciali ed i procedimenti pendenti ed il Congresso in cambio accettava di partecipare alla Conferenza della "Tavola Rotonda", nella quale fu raggiunto un vago accordo sulle linee generali della nuova costituzione. Con l'approssimarsi del secondo conflitto mondiale Gandhi riprese i contatti con il movimento indipendentista, per dichiarare così allo scoppio della guerra l'India come paese che condannava il nazismo e il fascismo e come paese che non si sarebbe mai alleato ad una guerra mirante alla difesa dello status quo, avrebbe collaborato alla difesa della democrazia se questa sarebbe stata applicata anche all'India. Nell'agosto 1940 il governo Churchill, dopo il crollo della Francia oppose la richiesta di un trasferimento immediato dei poteri ad un governo provvisorio indiano, dopo ciò non avendo ottenuto ciò che voleva Gandhi riprese la disobbedienza civile. Questa situazione era molto delicata per il governo britannico che non poteva affrontare anche il problema dell'India visto che la maggior parte delle forze erano impegnate nel conflitto mondiale. Nessun tentativo di riprendere colloquio fu tentato fino alla fine della guerra, intanto la moglie di Gandhi morì in carcere dopo un digiuno di protesta. La svolta decisiva si ebbe nel 1945 quando i mussulmani esposero le loro tesi nelle quali essi auspicavano la creazione di uno stato mussulmano separato, formato con le province in maggioranza mussulmane. Queste tesi prevalsero e il 15 agosto 1947 l'India si spaccò in due Stati distinti: il Pakistan e L'Unione Indiana. Per definire i confini vennero istituite due commissioni miste ma che stentavano a raggiungere un accordo, questa situazione tesa e complicata scatenò un guerra tra mussulmani ed hindù che alla fine di quel fatale 1947 provocò circa un milione di morti e circa 5 milioni di profughi. In questa situazione Gandhi ormai vecchio e solo lottò con tutte le sue forze, pure quando l'India divenne indipendente, rischiando anche di morire di fame, ma riuscendo a portare la calma almeno a Calcutta. Si recò di nuovo a Delhi, dove le violenze degli estremisti hindù erano molto più accese; qui egli si recava ogni sera per pregare all'aperto, in quiete, ma la sera del 30 Gennaio 1948 un giovane fanatico militante lo seguì e lo uccise con colpi di pistola a ripetizione. Così si chiudeva la vita di Gandhi all'età di 78 anni dopo aver lottato per tutta la vita per affermare un ideale di non violenza e di amore, ed era caduto vittima di quelle stesse passioni che aveva cercato di esorcizzare.&lt;br /&gt;http://www.rccr.cremona.it/stanga/progetto/gandhi/gandhi.htm&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-111341288276502986?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/111341288276502986/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=111341288276502986' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111341288276502986'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111341288276502986'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/04/gandhi.html' title='Gandhi'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-111341273754300210</id><published>2005-04-13T10:18:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-04-13T10:18:57.543-07:00</updated><title type='text'>l'Osteria del Sole a Bologna</title><content type='html'>l'Osteria del Sole ( all'Archivio di Stato è stata trovata una carta del 1465, che attesta come l'Osteria del Sole fosse già in esercizio, proprio lì in via dei Ranocchi, un tempo chiamata Borgadello).&lt;br /&gt;da non perdere&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-111341273754300210?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/111341273754300210/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=111341273754300210' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111341273754300210'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111341273754300210'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/04/losteria-del-sole-bologna.html' title='l&apos;Osteria del Sole a Bologna'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-111298142280945275</id><published>2005-04-08T10:26:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-04-09T02:27:41.776-07:00</updated><title type='text'>Uguaglianza 72521</title><content type='html'>Tutta l’opera di Ayn Rand è la celebrazione dell’uomo come di un essere eroico,&lt;br /&gt;... E’ Uguaglianza 72521 che vive in una società oscurantista&lt;br /&gt;LA VITA E' NOSTRA&lt;br /&gt;Novelist and philosopher Ayn Rand was born Alissa Rosenbaum on February 2, 1905 in St. Petersburg, Russia. Her family lived in a large, comfortable apartment above the chemist shop owned by her father.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;From her earliest years, the girl felt alienated from the dark, brooding atmosphere of Russia, but loved the bright world projected in stories appearing in foreign magazines. At age nine she made the conscious decision to become a writer.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In her teens, she discovered the works of great romantic writers such as Victor Hugo and Edmond Rostand. But as her private vision of human potential expanded, the social horizons of human possibility were shrinking around her. In February 1917 she witnessed the first shots of the Russian Revolution from her balcony. Soon, a communist gang nationalized her father’s shop. Almost overnight, her family was reduced to crushing poverty.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Against the growing squalor of Soviet life, the young woman nurtured a burning desire to abandon Russia for the West. She obtained a passport to visit relatives in Chicago, and left Russia and her family in January 1926, never to return. She arrived in New York City weeks later, with only $50 in her purse.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;After a brief stay with her Chicago relatives – where she selected the pen name of Ayn Rand – she moved to Hollywood. The day after she arrived, she was given a car ride, and a job as a movie extra, by film director Cecil B. DeMille. Soon after, on the set of DeMille’s film King of Kings, she literally stumbled into the actor who would eventually become her husband, Frank O’Connor.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Over the next decade, Rand worked at odd jobs. In her spare time she mastered English, and churned out screenplays, short stories, and a novel. Her extraordinary perseverance and talent eventually paid off with two Broadway plays, and publication of her first novel, We the Living.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;But the book that made her famous was The Fountainhead. Published in 1943, this great novel of American individualism presented Rand’s mature portrait of “Man as hero,” in the character of architect Howard Roark. Roark demands the right to design and build loyal only to his own ideals and principles. In his long struggle to succeed – a struggle not unlike Rand’s own – he eventually triumphs over every form of spiritual collectivism. This novel first presented Rand’s provocative morality of rational egoism, and later became a film starring Gary Cooper and Patricia Neal. It has remained a bestseller for over half a century, selling millions of copies.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If The Fountainhead created controversy, Atlas Shrugged fomented a furor. In this gigantic Romantic epic, Rand dramatized the major elements of her challenging new philosophy of “reason, individualism, and capitalism,” which she called “Objectivism.” This novel was to be the capstone of her literary and philosophic career.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;After publication of Atlas Shrugged in 1957, Rand turned to nonfiction, elaborating her philosophy in many essays, columns, and public appearances. Her colorful and tumultuous life ended on March 6, 1982 at her New York apartment.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;But in the years since her death, interest in her ideas has only increased. Today, she and her philosophy are the focus of books, film documentaries, magazine and newspaper articles, and a growing intellectual movement of scholars, organizations, and publications.&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-111298142280945275?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/111298142280945275/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=111298142280945275' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111298142280945275'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111298142280945275'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/04/uguaglianza-72521.html' title='Uguaglianza 72521'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12022247.post-111298091006409835</id><published>2005-04-08T10:16:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2005-04-08T10:21:50.066-07:00</updated><title type='text'>cenni storici - EBLA</title><content type='html'>EBLA&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;--------------------------------------------------------------------------------&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Ebla &lt;br /&gt;54 Km away from Aleppo, lies the excavation site that used to be the capital of an ancient kingdom. Ebla the ancient city found at Tell Mardikh is one of the most important archaeological discoveries in Syria.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In 1964 an Italian excavation team began to dig here and discovered this bronze age city. Ebla has been mentioned as one of the cities conquered in 2250 BC by the Akkadians from Mesopotamia under Naram Sin. It has been proved that Ebla was an important powerful kingdom, in the third and second millennia BC. Ebla has been considered something resembling a missing link, which now provides information on a kingdom that had important trading contacts with the Akkadians and Sumerians in Iraq, and north into Anatolia. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Not much is known about the people of this kingdom, although it is thought that the founders are of Amorite descent. Their language is known as Eblaic, and it was recorded on clay tablets in the Akkadian cuneiform. Ebla flourished greatly between 2400 and 2250 BC, as a trading city with a sophisticated economic and social system. It was destroyed by the Akkadians under Naram Sin in 2250 BC, and in 2000 BC was annexed into the Aleppo kingdom of Yamkhad. In 1600 BC it was conquered and heavily damaged by the Hittites. In 1450 BC it is recorded at Karnak by the Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III as a city that the Egyptians went through on their way to the Euphrates. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;An Aramean fortress dating back to the 9th and 8th centuries BC, and other remains from the Persian and Byzantine show that it was still used, although it had lost its fame and was for the most part an abandoned city. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The city was circular and surrounded by a 20 to 30 meter thick wall and had a citadel or acropolis in the center of it. At four points round the city, the wall was perforated by gateways guarded by bastions with towers. One of these gateways is still evident on the southwest side of the city walls. The citadel at the center includes to palaces, the main one is the royal palace on the west side that consists of the royal quarters and an administrative area. There are also three caves below this where some of the royals were buried. The palace archives were found in the southern part of this palace. North of the tell are the remains of an Amorite fortress, which was found under a villa dating back to the Persian and Hellenistic periods.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Most of the artifacts and archives can be found at the Idlib museum.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Ancient city excavated at the site of Tell Mardikh on the River Orontes in Syria. Recent excavations have yielded evidence of the previously unknown language and history of a powerful state of the 3rd millennium BC. Although the site was occupied from the 4th millennium BC onwards the period of its greatest wealth and power was in thc mid 3rd millennium; a large royal palace of this period has yielded an archive of more than 15,000 clay tablets inscribed in the cuneiform script in two languages, Sumerian and the local language, a Semitic tongue now labelled Eblaitc. Work is still continuing on the tablets, but they have already revealed a wealth of information about the economy, political organization and religion of Ebla. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The city was clearly an important commercial centre, exporting woollen cloth, wood and furniture to areas as far flung as Ashur in Mesopotamia and Kanesh in Anatolia. The settlement of this period was destroyed, notably by the Akkadian ruler Naram-Sin but the city was rebuilt and a great palace complex and some wealthy burials of the early 2nd millennium BC have been excavated. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The Ebla texts include many Semitic names which recall those of the Old Testament but extravagant claims of a cult of Yahweh at Ebla and of texts mentioning the biblical patriarchs, the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah and the Flood story are without foundation .....&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src="http://www.atlastours.net/syria/translation.jpg"&gt;. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;An Online Research Center on the History and Theory of Anarchism&lt;br /&gt;http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/index.html&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/12022247-111298091006409835?l=bagongus.blogspot.com' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/feeds/111298091006409835/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=12022247&amp;postID=111298091006409835' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111298091006409835'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/12022247/posts/default/111298091006409835'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://bagongus.blogspot.com/2005/04/cenni-storici-ebla.html' title='cenni storici - EBLA'/><author><name>Paolo</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/02127110187198935796</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='26' height='32' src='http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-46CoH3lpcnY/TuNe25Z4WXI/AAAAAAAAGJc/3fWpspYDJ54/s220/kramerx%2Bcopy.jpg'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry></feed>
